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William James, born in 1842, was a physician who later explored philosophy and psychology, offering lectures on the latter (Goodman, 2009). Like other philosophers, James contributed to discussions on metaphysics, morality, free will vs determinism, religion, and the afterlife. His unique approach involved integrating knowledge from physiology, psychology, and philosophy to offer fresh perspectives on traditional philosophical concepts (Goodman).
His influential work entitled "The Principles of Psychology" brought together these concepts, inspiring a movement towards pragmatism and phenomenology in philosophy among a group of American and European intellectuals including Bertrand Russell, John Dewey, and Edmund Husserl (Goodman, 2009).
James' ideas, which blended concepts from different fields of study and challenged dichotomous thinking, sparked new approaches to both philosophy and science.
His argument for the existence of indeterminism in the free will versus determinism debate was widely discussed and embraced by many for its unique perspective (Goodman).
William James' philosophy is based on the notion that philosophical concepts do not always have to be seen in an 'either/or' framework, but can be reconciled through logical reasoning between opposing ideas, at least to some extent within the philosopher himself.
Jamesian philosophy, as discussed by Doyle (2010), is often seen as embracing a compatibilist perspective on the concept of free will versus determinism.
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This viewpoint is evident in James's approach to the debate. Prior to James, in the seventeenth century, many philosophers, mainly rooted in theology, held a dualistic view of free will. They believed that freedom came from God and operated independently in the mind, separate from the physical world (Doyle).
According to this notion, freedom, even though seen as a natural concept, originates from a predetermined source and follows a specific path.
Later philosophers like David Hume and Thomas Hobbes argued that freedom is not impacted by external influence, as voluntary actions can coexist with strict determinism. They defined freedom as the ability to act freely rather than the freedom of will, believing that as long as the will's actions have a causal effect, it provides enough freedom for them (Doyle).
William James was the first to challenge the traditional view of free will as a simple dichotomy (Doyle, 2010), Instead of viewing free will as either determined or random, James introduced the idea that it contains elements of both by recognizing freedom while also emphasizing responsibility (Doyle). As a scientist, James developed a two-stage model incorporating chance and choice, which became known as Jamesian free will (Doyle).
James extensively elaborated on the concepts of chance and choice in his lecture "The Dilemma of Determinism" at Harvard Divinity School in 1884. Understanding his idea of indeterminism, which he discussed in detail, is key to comprehending the development of his model.
James believed that the soft determinists' claims about the freedom of actions were simply a tangled web of excuses. He questioned whether there was ever a clear distinction between being free from external constraints, acting morally, or simply conforming to the laws of nature. He posed the question of whether we are truly free at times, or if our actions are predetermined.
James believed that compatibilist definitions focused more on semantics than on actual truth, and did not address the true meaning of freedom in relation to determinism. He argued that indeterminism contradicted assumptions of determinism. James viewed the term 'freedom' as sentimental and easily manipulated, favoring the term 'chance' instead.
James contended that while determinism relied on a cause-and-effect view where existing elements dictate future elements without uncertainty, indeterminism proposed that elements have some degree of influence on themselves, meaning the presence of one element does not definitively determine the next. This is because there may be more potential outcomes than actual outcomes, leaving future events uncertain until they are experienced.
Indeterminism, according to James, allows for the existence of chances and suggests that the world cannot be fully explained by a single unit of fact. Indeterminism posits that actualities are chosen from a vast sea of possibilities, whereas determinists believe these possibilities do not truly exist. James argues that either determinism or indeterminism must be true, as the two philosophies contradict each other.
James contended that determinists who persist in rejecting the concept of possibility effectively stifle philosophical discourse, as a rigid stance will inevitably shut down any debate (James). Indeterminism does not need to be directly validated, as scientific findings are rooted in factual occurrences. Despite a vast accumulation of facts, they offer limited insight into alternative outcomes; factual evidence can only be supported by other facts, and possibilities hold no significance in factual matters (James).
According to Doyle (2010), possibilities are created through experiences that were originally involuntary and random, as well as through observations and chance events. The inexhaustible lists of possibilities that form in our memories are a result of this. Indeterminists hold the basic assumption that indeterminism, which is as close to the truth and is the opposite of hard determinism, leads to the formation of these possibilities. Doyle (2010) highlights James' two-stage model as a representation of indeterministic free will.
According to Doyle, the concept of possibilities challenges determinism by emphasizing the idea of chances, as seen from a Jamesian perspective. Indeterministic chance, as described by James, involves "ambiguous possibilities" and "alternative futures" that are truly random. These alternatives do not limit the choices available, but rather allow for various potential outcomes. Chances, which exist naturally and are somewhat determined, do not directly cause actions. Instead, it is the individual's choices and volitions that ultimately lead to actions taking place.
All things considered, the model suggested that free will can be seen as a situation where there is a chance for various alternatives in the present moment, leading to a decision that gives permission to one option and changes an uncertain future into a fixed past (Doyle, 2010, p. 7). As a conclusion to this concept, James presented an illustration to his audience about the concept of chance and choice as a strong argument against libertarian free will, prompting profound questions in the minds of many (Doyle, 2010).
Imagine a scenario where I walk through Divinity Avenue first, then the universe erases ten minutes of time and puts me back at the door of the hall. Now imagine I make a different choice and walk through Oxford Street. As spectators, you witness two alternate universes: one where I walk through Divinity Avenue and one where I walk through Oxford Street, with everything else remaining the same.
According to determinists, one of these universes is considered impossible because of intrinsic irrationality or accidentality. However, it is difficult to determine from an external perspective which universe is impossible and accidental, and which is rational and necessary. Even the most staunch determinist may struggle to shed light on this matter (James, 1884, p.6-7).
William James: Challenging Dichotomous Thinking. (2016, Nov 09). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/william-james-essay
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