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The American Revolution (1775-1783) marked a pivotal moment in history, leading to the birth of a new nation and stirring a profound sense of patriotism among its people. This victory, however, did not immediately translate into a flourishing literary scene. In the years following the Revolution, American literature struggled to find its footing amidst a landscape dominated by British literary models. This essay delves into the journey of American literature from its early dependence on English influences to the emergence of a truly independent and iconic generation of American writers in the early 19th century.
As the American colonies fought for their independence, they were keenly aware of their reliance on English literary traditions. While political writings of the time thrived, creative literature faced challenges. American books were often harshly criticized in England, and this criticism highlighted the need for a distinct national literary identity. As one American magazine editor stated in 1816, the dependence on foreign minds for creative output was viewed as a degradation.
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Cultural revolutions, unlike military ones, cannot be imposed from the outside; they must grow organically from shared experiences. It would take several decades of accumulated history and evolving sensibilities for America to assert its cultural independence through literature. The first great generation of American writers emerged around the 1820s, including luminaries like Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson.
America's journey towards literary independence was hindered by several factors.
The lingering identification with England, excessive imitation of English and classical literary styles, and challenging economic and political conditions all played their part in impeding the growth of American literature.
During the colonial period and the early years of the republic, many American writers were born English, grew up as English citizens, and were steeped in English culture. Their friends, parents, and grandparents were English or European, making it difficult for them to break free from English literary traditions.
Additionally, American awareness of literary trends lagged behind England, leading to a continued imitation of English authors. Even fifty years after gaining fame in England, English neoclassical writers like Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, and others were still widely imitated in America.
Moreover, the challenges and opportunities presented by building a new nation attracted educated individuals to fields such as politics, law, and diplomacy, which offered honor, glory, and financial security. Writing, in contrast, was not a lucrative pursuit during this time, which further deterred talented individuals from pursuing a literary career.
Financial challenges were a significant obstacle for early American writers. The absence of modern publishers, limited distribution, and inadequate legal protection made it difficult for authors to make a living through their writing. Until 1825, most American authors had to pay printers to publish their works.
Furthermore, the small cultivated audience in America preferred well-known European authors due to the lingering respect for England, the former colonial ruler. This preference for English literature, while somewhat justified given the quality gap, exacerbated the struggles of American authors by depriving them of a local audience.
Journalism was one of the few areas that offered some financial compensation, but the mass audience demanded light, undemanding content like verse and short topical essays, rather than longer or experimental works.
One of the most significant impediments to the growth of American literature was the absence of adequate copyright laws. American printers were notorious for pirating English bestsellers, as they were unwilling to pay American authors for their work.
At the time, pirating foreign books was initially seen as a service to the colonies and a source of profit for American printers. For instance, Matthew Carey, a prominent American publisher, went to great lengths to pirate English books, even employing agents in London to send copies of unbound pages or proofs back to America.
The lack of copyright protection affected not only American authors but also foreign writers like Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, who saw their works pirated in the American market. The 1790 copyright law, drafted by Noah Webster, aimed to protect the work of American authors, but it inadvertently allowed piracy, which was profitable for early American publishers. This piracy stunted the growth of the first generation of revolutionary American writers.
Despite these challenges, the early decades of the new nation witnessed a cheap and abundant supply of pirated foreign books and classics, which educated Americans and laid the foundation for the emergence of a generation of truly great writers.
Around 1825, American literature began to experience a transformation. Writers like Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, and others emerged as distinct voices, breaking free from English literary models. They were the vanguard of a new era of American literature, marked by originality, creativity, and a deep connection to the American experience.
James Fenimore Cooper, in particular, is a noteworthy figure in this literary renaissance. His first successful book, "The Spy" (1821), was pirated by multiple printers within a month of its release. This highlights the extent of the challenges faced by early American authors, as even their initial successes were marred by piracy.
The 18th-century American Enlightenment was a profound intellectual movement that played a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of American literature. This period emphasized rationality over tradition, scientific inquiry over unquestioning religious dogma, and representative government over monarchy. Enlightenment thinkers and writers championed the ideals of justice, liberty, and equality as natural rights, and their influence on American literature was profound.
One of the key figures of the American Enlightenment was Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), whom the Scottish philosopher David Hume aptly called America's "first great man of letters." Franklin embodied the Enlightenment ideal of humane rationality and pragmatism. His multifaceted life and contributions serve as a testament to the impact of Enlightenment thinking on an individual's trajectory.
Benjamin Franklin, a second-generation immigrant, hailed from a Puritan family, and his early years in Boston, Massachusetts, were shaped by traditional values. However, Franklin's insatiable thirst for knowledge and his exposure to Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, and Joseph Addison led him to embrace reason and break free from the constraints of old-fashioned Puritan traditions.
Franklin's remarkable journey from a self-educated young man to a polymath who excelled in fields such as writing, printing, publishing, science, philanthropy, and diplomacy exemplified the Enlightenment's emphasis on self-improvement and reason. His success in these endeavors helped liberalize the social and cultural norms of his time.
While still a youth, Franklin embarked on a path of self-education, teaching himself languages, exploring a wide range of literature, and honing his writing skills for public engagement. His move from Boston to Philadelphia marked a critical juncture in his life, as he had already acquired an education that was comparable to that of the upper classes.
Franklin's Puritan work ethic, combined with his dedication to self-improvement, propelled him to achieve wealth, respectability, and honor. He was not only interested in his own success but also in helping others achieve their potential. He pioneered a quintessentially American literary genre, the self-help book, through his famous publication "Poor Richard's Almanack," which offered practical advice, encouragement, and factual information to readers. The amusing characters within the almanac, such as Father Abraham and Poor Richard, delivered memorable aphorisms that resonated with the public.
One of the notable pieces within "Poor Richard's Almanack" was "The Way to Wealth," where Father Abraham shared insights like "God helps them that help themselves" and "Industry pays Debts, while Despair encreaseth them." Franklin's ability to distill moral lessons into pithy sayings showcased his genius for conveying practical wisdom.
Franklin's Autobiography, written as guidance for his son, focused on his early years and his quest for self-improvement. In it, he outlined thirteen virtues, including temperance, silence, order, and sincerity, each accompanied by a maxim. Franklin meticulously tracked his progress using a reusable calendrical record book, prefiguring modern behavior modification and psychological behaviorism. This systematic approach to self-improvement blended the Enlightenment's belief in perfectibility with the Puritan practice of moral self-examination.
Furthermore, Franklin recognized the power of writing as a means to disseminate his ideas. He meticulously refined his prose style, adhering to the Enlightenment's call for clear, precise language. He advised others to "Write with the learned. Pronounce with the vulgar," emphasizing the importance of effective communication.
Despite his prosperity and fame, Franklin remained committed to democratic values and played a vital role in the drafting of the U.S. Constitution during the 1787 convention. In his later years, he championed the cause of universal public education and served as the president of an antislavery association, highlighting his enduring commitment to social progress and equality.
Another Enlightenment figure who significantly influenced American literature during this period was Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (1735-1813). Though he was not an American by birth or a farmer by occupation, his work, "Letters from an American Farmer" (1782), offered a glowing portrayal of the opportunities for peace, wealth, and pride in America, shaping the perception of the American character both in Europe and the United States.
Crevecoeur, a French aristocrat who owned a plantation outside New York City before the Revolution, praised the American colonies for their industry, tolerance, and burgeoning prosperity. In his twelve letters, he painted a picture of America as an agrarian paradise, a vision that would go on to inspire future writers such as Thomas Jefferson and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
One of Crevecoeur's most enduring contributions was his exploration of the concept of the "melting pot" in America. In a famous passage, he contemplated the nature of the American identity, describing how individuals from diverse backgrounds came together to create a new race of people. This idea of a nation forged from the fusion of various cultures and backgrounds would become a central theme in American literature for generations to come.
Crevecoeur's work offered Europeans a unique perspective on the American experience, making him one of the earliest Europeans to provide a considered view of America and its evolving character. His observations and ideas laid the foundation for future writers who sought to explore and understand the evolving American identity.
While the American Enlightenment was instrumental in shaping the intellectual landscape of the nation, it was the political pamphlet that truly galvanized the passion and fervor of the Revolutionary era. Pamphlets emerged as the most popular form of political literature during this period, with over 2,000 pamphlets published. These concise but powerful publications thrilled patriots and struck fear into the hearts of loyalists, often serving as dramatic readings that ignited public sentiment.
American soldiers found solace in reading these pamphlets aloud in their camps, while British Loyalists resorted to burning them in public bonfires. Among the most influential of these pamphlets was Thomas Paine's "Common Sense," which sold over 100,000 copies within the first three months of its publication. Paine's words continue to resonate today, with his assertion that "the cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind," encapsulating the enduring concept of American exceptionalism—the idea that America's democratic experiment and its openness to immigrants foreshadowed the fate of humanity.
Political writings during this democratic era had to be clear and accessible to appeal to voters, contributing to the promotion of universal education by many of the founding fathers. The proliferation of newspapers further demonstrated the vigorous literary life of the time, as more newspapers were read in America during the Revolution than anywhere else in the world. The need for simplicity in writing was also driven by immigration, as newcomers often had English as a second language. Writers like Thomas Jefferson, in drafting the Declaration of Independence, prioritized clarity and logical expression, crafting a document suitable for democratic debate.
The Federalist Papers, composed in support of the Constitution, are another example of lucid, logical arguments that were designed for debate within a democratic nation. These pamphlets served as a testament to the power of clear, well-crafted prose to convey complex ideas in a democratic society.
While political writing thrived on clarity and accessibility, literary writing during the same period often struggled with the pitfalls of neoclassicism. The allure of the epic, in particular, proved irresistible to many educated authors. The epic, with its long narrative form, elevated language, and celebration of legendary heroes, seemed like the perfect medium to express the grandeur of the American Revolution. However, many writers attempted but failed to create epic works that captured the essence of the Revolution.
One such writer was Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), a member of the Hartford Wits, who took inspiration from the Biblical story of Joshua's conquest of Canaan for his epic "The Conquest of Canaan" (1785). Dwight cast General Washington as a symbolic figure in his allegory, yet the ambitious endeavor resulted in a work that was both tedious and uninspiring. English critics were merciless in their critique, and even Dwight's friends, such as John Trumbull (1750-1831), were unenthusiastic about the effort.
The mock epic genre, in contrast, proved to be a more successful avenue for American poets. It allowed them to embrace their natural voices and steer clear of the pitfalls of pretentiousness and predictable patriotic sentiments. Writers like John Trumbull found that stylized emotions and conventional turns of phrase could serve as ammunition for satire, and they used the bombastic oratory of the Revolution as fodder for ridicule. Trumbull's "M'Fingal" (1776-82), modeled on Samuel Butler's "Hudibras," lampooned a Tory character named M'Fingal and cleverly employed satire to highlight the absurdity of the times.
The mock epic genre lent itself to pithy and pointed satire, with memorable lines such as "No man e'er felt the halter draw with good opinion of the law." "M'Fingal" became immensely popular, undergoing more than 30 editions and enjoying appreciation both in England and America. Satire resonated with Revolutionary audiences because it offered social commentary and criticism, addressing the pressing political and social issues of the day.
Royall Tyler's "The Contrast" (produced 1787), the first American comedy to be performed, humorously contrasted an American officer, Colonel Manly, with the character Dimple, who imitated English fashions and was portrayed as ridiculous. The play introduced the character of Jonathan, the first representation of the Yankee archetype in American literature.
Another satirical work, "Modern Chivalry," a novel published in installments by Hugh Henry Brackenridge from 1792 to 1815, provided a biting critique of the excesses of the age. Brackenridge, a Scottish immigrant raised on the American frontier, drew inspiration from "Don Quixote" to craft a picaresque novel that lampooned the misadventures of Captain Farrago and his bumbling yet endearing servant, Teague O'Regan.
The burgeoning field of American fiction in the early 19th century saw the emergence of Charles Brockden Brown, Washington Irving, and James Fenimore Cooper as the first recognized fiction writers. These literary pioneers not only explored American subjects and historical perspectives but also introduced themes of change and nostalgia to the literary landscape. Through their diverse prose genres and innovative storytelling, they played a pivotal role in establishing American literature as a respected and influential force, both at home and abroad.
Charles Brockden Brown, often regarded as the first professional American writer, drew inspiration from English writers such as Mrs. Radcliffe and William Godwin. Brown's rapid literary output, driven by financial necessity, resulted in four haunting novels in just two years: "Wieland" (1798), "Arthur Mervyn" (1799), "Ormond" (1799), and "Edgar Huntley" (1799). Within these works, he laid the foundation for the American Gothic genre.
American Gothic, a popular literary form of the era, featured exotic and eerie settings, profound psychological depth, and suspenseful narratives. Brown's novels incorporated elements like ruined castles, ghosts, mysterious secrets, and resilient heroines, offering both thrilling suspense and profound explorations of the human psyche. Critics have suggested that Brown's Gothic sensibility reflected deep concerns about the fledgling nation's social institutions.
What set Brown apart was his choice of distinctly American settings and his ability to weave scientific theories into his narratives. Despite his personal struggles with poverty, he championed high literary standards. Today, he is recognized as a precursor to romantic writers like Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, expressing subconscious fears lurking beneath the outwardly optimistic Enlightenment period.
Washington Irving, the youngest of 11 children in a prosperous New York merchant family, embarked on a unique literary journey. His entry into the world of professional writing was somewhat serendipitous, driven by a series of fortunate circumstances. Through connections, he successfully published his "Sketch Book" (1819-1820) in both England and America, securing copyrights and payment in both countries.
The "Sketch Book of Geoffrye Crayon" showcased Irving's elegant and seemingly effortless prose style, a perfect match for his imaginative tales. This collection introduced two of his most enduring stories, "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." Through his storytelling, Irving transformed the Catskill Mountains along the Hudson River into a fantastical and magical realm.
Irving's ability to humanize the American landscape, imbuing it with legends and a sense of history, filled a crucial cultural void in a young and materialistic nation. His tale of "Rip Van Winkle," the man who slept for 20 years and awoke to an independent America, became folklore and an authentic American legend. Irving's work helped the nation connect with its history and find its identity.
James Fenimore Cooper, like Irving, delved into the past and breathed life into it, giving it a name and a place. However, Cooper's vision was marked by a profound sense of the past's golden age and the poignant loss thereof. While other American writers sought inspiration in Europe's legends and castles, Cooper embraced a fundamental American myth—the timelessness of the wilderness.
Cooper believed that American history was a transgression on the eternal, and European history in America represented a reenactment of the fall in the Garden of Eden. His novels depicted the tragic irony of the wilderness's destruction, the very wilderness that had initially lured colonists. Personal experiences, including encounters with frontiersmen and Indians, informed his vivid portrayal of the changing frontier.
The character of Natty Bumppo, an idealized frontiersman, emerged as a central figure in Cooper's literary universe. Natty epitomized the Jeffersonian "natural aristocrat," embodying qualities of purity, individualism, and spirituality. He moved westward to escape the encroaching settlers he had once guided into the wilderness, becoming a symbol of ethical values and an archetype for characters like Herman Melville's Billy Budd and Mark Twain's Huck Finn.
Cooper's "Leather-Stocking Tales," a series of five novels, created an expansive prose epic set against the backdrop of North America's transformation. These novels chronicled the waves of frontier settlement, from the wilderness inhabited by Indians to the arrival of settlers and professionals. Cooper's storytelling captured the inexorable march of settlers and the losses incurred along the way.
Cooper's work delved into the tension between the individual and society, nature and culture, spirituality and organized religion. He portrayed the natural world and the Indian as fundamentally good, juxtaposing them with suspect intermediate characters. Cooper's deep cultural relativism acknowledged that virtue and refinement could be found in various cultures. Unlike Irving, who imported European legends, Cooper created uniquely American settings, characters, and themes, and he introduced a recurring tragic element into American fiction.
While the colonial period gave rise to notable women writers, the revolutionary era failed to advance the literary contributions of women and minorities, despite the proliferation of schools, magazines, newspapers, and literary clubs. Remarkable colonial women such as Anne Bradstreet, Anne Hutchinson, Ann Cotton, and Sarah Kemble Knight wielded considerable social and literary influence despite the challenging conditions and dangers they faced. It's worth noting that of the 18 women who arrived in America on the Mayflower in 1620, only four survived the first year. In a society where every able-bodied person mattered and circumstances were fluid, innate talent found opportunities for expression. However, as cultural institutions became more formalized in the emerging republic, women and minorities gradually found themselves excluded.
Ironically, during the harsh realities of early American life, some of the most outstanding poetry of the era was penned by an extraordinary enslaved woman. Phillis Wheatley, the first African-American author of significance in the United States, was born in Africa and brought to Boston, Massachusetts, at the age of about seven. She was purchased by the pious and affluent tailor John Wheatley to serve as a companion to his wife.
The Wheatleys quickly recognized Phillis's exceptional intellect and talent, which belied the circumstances of her enslavement. Phillis Wheatley became a literary sensation, defying societal norms and prejudices to become an accomplished poet. Her works resonated with themes of faith, freedom, and the human spirit, all within the context of her own journey from slavery to intellectual prominence.
Phillis Wheatley's remarkable literary contributions serve as a testament to the enduring power of the written word, even in the face of adversity and oppression. Her poetry remains a significant part of early American literature, shedding light on the overlooked voices of women and minorities during a time of profound societal change.
In the early chapters of American literary history, we encounter a nation grappling with its identity, striving for independence, and navigating the challenges of cultural evolution. The voices of writers like Brown, Irving, Cooper, and Wheatley, along with countless others, shaped the contours of early American literature, each contributing a unique thread to the tapestry of American letters.
Despite the obstacles, these writers persevered, giving voice to the hopes and struggles of their time. They laid the foundation for a robust and diverse literary tradition that would continue to evolve and expand in the years to come. Their stories remind us that literature has the power to illuminate the human experience, transcending barriers of time, culture, and circumstance.
As we explore the pages of early American literature, we uncover not only the triumphs of the human spirit but also the enduring power of the written word to capture the essence of a nation's journey. These literary pioneers beckon us to listen to their stories, unearthing hidden narratives and finding inspiration in the pages of the past.
Ultimately, early American literature serves as a testament to the enduring power of the human imagination and the indomitable spirit of those who dared to put pen to paper, shaping the literary legacy of a nation in the making.
The Evolution of American Literature: From Dependency to Independence. (2016, Sep 06). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/democratic-origins-and-revolutionary-writers-1776-1820-essay
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