Mary Whiton Calkins: A Pioneer in Psychology

In the early days of psychology, there were significant barriers for women who aspired to make a lasting impact in the field. Sex discrimination was rampant, and the prevailing belief held that women were inherently inferior to men in the realm of intellectual pursuits. However, amidst these challenges, Mary Whiton Calkins emerged as a trailblazer and a pioneer in psychology, leaving an enduring legacy marked by her groundbreaking contributions to the discipline.

Early Life and Education

Mary Whiton Calkins was born in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1863, and she was the eldest of five children in her family.

Her parents, forward-thinking for their time, strongly encouraged their children's education, emphasizing the study of languages and cultures (Furumoto, 1980). Calkins completed her high school education in Newton, Massachusetts, and embarked on her academic journey at Smith College in 1882, initially enrolling as a sophomore.

However, her academic pursuits faced an unexpected interruption when her sister fell seriously ill and eventually passed away in 1883. This tragedy compelled Calkins to temporarily withdraw from Smith College and engage in independent study of Greek during the following year.

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In 1884, she returned to Smith College as a senior and graduated in 1885 with a concentration in classics and philosophy.

A Career in Teaching

Upon graduating from Smith College, Calkins embarked on a teaching career, initially as a Greek instructor. In 1887, she accepted a teaching position at Wellesley College, where she taught for three years. It was during her tenure at Wellesley that her career trajectory took a significant turn. In 1890, she was offered the opportunity to teach psychology, a subject she had not formally studied.

The path to becoming a psychology instructor was fraught with challenges, as there were limited psychology programs available, and even fewer that accepted female applicants. To meet the qualifications for teaching psychology, Calkins had to commit to a year of study in the field. She seized this opportunity and, during that year, worked unofficially at the psychology laboratory of Clark University alongside Edmund Sanford. This collaboration played a pivotal role in the establishment of a psychology lab at Wellesley College, equipped with state-of-the-art equipment, which officially opened in 1891 (Goodwin, 2008).

Pioneering at Harvard

Calkins' determination to further her education and delve deeper into psychology led her to Harvard University, despite the prevailing gender biases that restricted women's access to higher education. In a pivotal moment, she was invited to attend lectures at Harvard, and she formally requested to participate in these academic sessions. Josiah Royce, a Harvard professor, guided her towards taking classes at the Harvard Annex, as it was not an official part of Harvard University.

Royce, however, encouraged Calkins to attend regular Harvard classes, as not all of his teachings were available through the Annex. Although Charles Eliot, the president of Harvard, adhered to the belief in separate education for the sexes, relentless pressure from influential figures like William James and Josiah Royce, along with petitions from Calkins' father and the president of Wellesley College, finally convinced Eliot to allow her to attend seminars on psychology at Harvard in 1892. However, it was explicitly stated that she would not be registered as a student of the University (Furumoto, 1980).

The Pursuit of Graduate Studies

Calkins' thirst for knowledge and her commitment to psychology did not waver. She continued to teach while simultaneously studying under the guidance of J. Munsterberg until 1894 when she devoted an entire year to full-time study. Munsterberg, recognizing her potential, petitioned Harvard to accept Calkins as a Ph.D. candidate, but this request was met with rejection. Nevertheless, the Harvard psychology department conducted an informal examination of Calkins, which she successfully passed in 1895.

During the same year, while studying at Harvard, Calkins presented her theses, which marked the culmination of a series of experimental studies on association. Her innovative research led to the development of a procedure known as "paired-associate learning" (Goodwin, 2008). In this method, subjects studied stimulus-response pairs, involving sequentially presented color patches and corresponding numbers, and then attempted to recall the number responses when presented with the color stimuli. Calkins' meticulous experiments revealed that recall was influenced by four key factors: frequency, vividness, recency, and primacy, with frequency being the most significant factor.

Returning to Wellesley College

Following her stint at Harvard, Calkins returned to Wellesley College, where she continued her teaching career. Her dedication to psychology remained unwavering, and she made significant theoretical contributions to the field. Starting in 1900, Calkins transitioned from research-oriented publications to developing her central theoretical contribution: self-psychology. She posited that while psychology could encompass the study of mental life, the core element of psychology must revolve around the presence of the self (Goodwin, 2008).

Over the next three decades, Calkins diligently presented, developed, and defended her self-psychology theory. Her work increasingly leaned towards philosophy and distanced itself from the prevailing psychological trend of behaviorism. Throughout this period, she continued to engage with philosophy and psychology, ultimately focusing on the primacy of self in her theoretical framework (Furumoto, 1980).

Leadership in Professional Organizations

Mary Whiton Calkins' contributions to psychology extended beyond her academic pursuits. In 1905, she achieved a historic milestone by becoming the first woman elected as the president of the American Psychological Association (APA). Her presidency symbolized a significant breakthrough for women in the field, as she shattered the gender barrier in a male-dominated professional organization. Her influence within the APA was not limited to her presidency; she continued to shape the direction of psychology through her work and advocacy (Furumoto, 1980).

Furthermore, Calkins' leadership extended to the American Philosophical Association (APA), where she served as the first female president in 1918. Her multifaceted contributions to both psychology and philosophy underscored her intellectual versatility and unwavering commitment to her beliefs.

Legacy and Recognition

Mary Whiton Calkins' pioneering contributions to psychology and philosophy have left an enduring legacy that continues to be celebrated. She authored four books and more than a hundred papers, covering a wide array of topics in both fields. Her diverse interests led her to explore areas such as dream research, animal consciousness, and memorization.

Throughout her remarkable career, Calkins championed the importance of self in psychology, offering a theoretical framework that sought to reconcile competing schools of thought, including structuralism and functionalism. Her steadfast dedication to her beliefs was evident when she declined an honorary Ph.D. from Radcliffe College, firmly rejecting the notion of inherent mental differences between the sexes (Furumoto, 1980).

Despite her groundbreaking work and influence on psychology and philosophy, Harvard University's refusal to grant her the earned Ph.D. remains a stain on the history of academic recognition. In 1927, a group of Harvard alumni petitioned the university to confer Calkins with the Ph.D. she rightfully deserved, but their efforts were met with denial (Furumoto, 1980).

Conclusion

Mary Whiton Calkins' indomitable spirit, intellectual prowess, and groundbreaking contributions to psychology and philosophy have solidified her place as a pioneer in both disciplines. Her journey from challenging gender barriers at Harvard University to becoming a trailblazing president of professional organizations exemplifies her enduring legacy.

While her contributions may have been overshadowed or marginalized by the prevailing biases of her time, Calkins' impact on the fields of psychology and philosophy remains undeniable. Her dedication to the study of self and her unwavering commitment to her principles continue to inspire generations of scholars and serve as a testament to the power of resilience and intellectual passion.