Understanding Deviance and Criminal Behavior: Strain Theory

Deviance, criminal behavior, and wrongdoing are complex phenomena that have intrigued scholars for years. People do not simply wake up one morning and decide to engage in criminal activities without underlying reasons. There are often past or present experiences that drive individuals towards deviant behavior. Criminologists have dedicated considerable time to studying these questions, leading to the development of various theories that offer unique perspectives on the causes of crime.

The Emergence of Strain Theory

Among the numerous theories exploring the origins of criminal behavior, one theory that stands out is the Strain Theory.

This paper delves into the history of Strain Theory, from its inception by Robert Merton in 1938 to its evolution into the General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew in 1992.

Robert Merton and the Origins of Strain Theory

The roots of Strain Theory can be traced back to French sociologist Emile Durkheim, who popularized the concept of anomie in his 1897 book, "Suicide: A Study in Sociology." Durkheim's research on thousands of suicide cases led him to conclude that people often take their own lives due to societal pressures and influences.

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He defined anomie as "normlessness," highlighting the breakdown of social norms in modern industrial societies.

Building on Durkheim's work, Robert Merton, born on July 4, 1910, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, applied the concept of anomie to contemporary industrial societies in 1938. Merton, who changed his name from Meyer Schkolnick to Robert King Merton to conceal his Jewish heritage, was a multilingual scholar with a Ph.D. from Harvard University. He made significant contributions to sociology during his career and authored notable works such as "Social Theory and Social Structure" and "On the Shoulders of Giants.

" Merton's impact on the field of sociology extended to his exploration of crime and deviance.

Merton posited that anomie in modern societies arises from a significant disconnection "between valued cultural ends and legitimate societal means to those ends." In other words, individuals in society have legitimate goals, such as wealth, status, and personal happiness, which are desirable and pursued by many. However, not everyone has equal access to the means required to achieve these goals, creating a strain.

To illustrate this, consider that to attain wealth, status, and personal happiness, individuals typically need tools like education, a good job, and financial stability. Merton argued that the means to achieve these goals are not evenly distributed in society. Not everyone can afford a quality college education or access the resources needed to become a successful doctor or lawyer. Consequently, individuals from lower-class backgrounds often find it challenging to attain these societal goals, leading to a strain between their aspirations and their means to achieve them.

Merton's Five Modes of Adaptation to Strain

Merton proposed that not everyone who experiences this strain resorts to deviant or criminal behavior. He identified five modes of adaptation to strain, each with its own goal and means:

• Conformity: This is the most common mode of adaptation, where individuals accept both societal goals and the prescribed means for achieving them. Conformists embrace the goals of society and adhere to the approved means for reaching those goals. Typically, this group consists of middle-class and upper-class individuals.
• Innovation: Innovators accept societal goals but lack the means to achieve them. In response, they innovate by creating their own means to attain these goals, often resorting to criminal acts such as robbery or embezzlement. Innovators are typically from lower-class backgrounds.
• Ritualism: Individuals adapting through ritualism can live a high-class life but may not necessarily value it. They might obtain a good education, engage in an acceptable occupation, and outwardly appear to lead a middle-class life, but they may not care much for the symbols of success.
• Retreatism: Those in retreatism give up not only the goals but also the means. They are often associated with substance abuse, homelessness, and a non-productive lifestyle.
• Rebellion: Rebellion occurs when individuals reject both the cultural goals and the legitimate means, substituting their own goals and means. This mode often involves radical or revolutionary actions against established norms.

Merton's theory highlighted that the highest levels of strain are experienced by the lower-class population, as they have fewer opportunities for success. The absence of opportunities increases the pressure to achieve socio-economic goals, contributing to deviance.

The Evolution of Strain Theory: Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory

Robert Agnew and the Critique of Traditional Strain Theory

While Merton's Strain Theory provided valuable insights, it was eventually criticized for its oversimplification and limitations. In response to these critiques, Robert Agnew expanded on the traditional strain theory and introduced the General Strain Theory.

Robert Agnew, born on December 1, 1953, in Atlantic City, New Jersey, developed a keen interest in sociology. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1980 and conducted extensive research, which culminated in his dissertation, "A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency." This research paved the way for his publication of the General Strain Theory in 1992.

Agnew's critique of the traditional strain theory centered on its failure to explain why an increase in goals and a decrease in means did not always lead to increased delinquency. Additionally, the traditional strain theory primarily forecasted delinquent behavior in the lower-class population, neglecting the fact that delinquency could also be observed in the middle and upper classes. Agnew believed that the traditional theory overlooked key factors such as the abandonment of criminal behavior in late adolescence and the quality of family relationships.

Agnew argued that the traditional theory placed excessive emphasis on financial strain, while neglecting other crucial aspects of life. His General Strain Theory introduced a more comprehensive approach, acknowledging that strain could result from various sources beyond financial hardship.

The Three Major Types of Strain in General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory identifies three major types of strain that individuals may experience:

1. Failure to Achieve Positively Valued Goals: People often strive for goals they deem essential, such as wealth, respect, status, and autonomy. The failure to attain these goals can create strain, especially when individuals feel that these goals are out of reach. The pursuit of wealth, in particular, can lead to criminal behavior when individuals see no legitimate means of acquiring it.
2. Loss or Threat of Loss of Positive Stimuli: Strain can also result from the removal or impending loss of something or someone that brings positive feelings. This can include the death of a loved one, the end of a significant relationship, or the theft of valuable possessions. Strain of this kind may lead individuals to engage in criminal acts to prevent further loss or seek revenge.
3. Presentation of Negative Stimuli: Individuals subjected to negative stimuli, such as child abuse, neglect, adverse relationships with family and teachers, negative school experiences, problematic peer relations, neighborhood issues, or homelessness, may experience strain that can contribute to delinquent behavior.

The General Strain Theory recognizes that crime and deviance can result from diverse forms of strain beyond just financial difficulties. It underscores the emotional and psychological impact of strain, particularly the role of anger as a primary emotional response.

Coping Strategies and the Role of Anger

Robert Agnew's theory also delves into coping strategies individuals employ to deal with strain in their lives. These coping mechanisms can be broadly categorized into three types: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral.

Cognitive strategies involve reinterpreting strain in alternative ways, reducing its significance, maximizing favorable outcomes, minimizing undesirable outcomes, or acknowledging accountability for adverse consequences. By altering their cognitive perspective, individuals can lessen the impact of strain on their behavior.

Emotional strategies focus on managing negative emotions generated by strain. Rather than attempting to change external circumstances, individuals using emotional strategies work to eliminate damaging feelings. Activities such as physical exercise or relaxation techniques can help individuals cope with emotional strain.

Behavioral strategies entail actively seeking positive stimuli or avoiding negative ones. Individuals employing behavioral strategies may aim to attain goals they find valuable or escape from stressors. These strategies are intertwined with the major types of strain identified in the theory.

Central to the General Strain Theory is the role of anger. Agnew posits that when individuals experience strain, they often respond with anger, attributing their negative circumstances to external factors or individuals. This anger can trigger a desire for revenge and lower inhibitions, potentially leading to criminal acts. However, the theory acknowledges that not everyone responds to strain with criminal behavior, as people have different coping resources such as temperament, self-esteem, and creativity that can mitigate the likelihood of engaging in delinquent acts.

Application of General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory offers a nuanced perspective on crime and deviance, accounting for a wide range of sources of strain beyond financial issues. It considers the emotional and psychological aspects of strain, recognizing that anger can play a pivotal role in driving individuals towards criminal behavior.

This theory aligns with the complexities of real-world experiences, as it takes into account diverse forms of strain in different social contexts. While not everyone reacts to strain by committing crimes, the General Strain Theory provides a framework for understanding why some individuals turn to deviance as a way to cope with life's challenges. It highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to addressing the root causes of criminal behavior, including emotional and psychological factors.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the evolution of strain theory from Robert Merton's initial formulation to Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory demonstrates the ongoing development and refinement of sociological theories of deviance and crime. While Merton's theory paved the way for understanding the role of societal goals and means in criminal behavior, Agnew's expansion of the theory broadened its scope to encompass a wider array of sources of strain and emotions, particularly the role of anger.

The General Strain Theory acknowledges that individuals may respond to strain through cognitive, emotional, and behavioral coping strategies, shedding light on the diverse ways people adapt to challenging circumstances. By recognizing the emotional dimensions of strain and its impact on anger and potential criminal behavior, this theory provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics of deviance in society.

In an ever-evolving world, the study of deviance and criminal behavior remains a critical area of research, and theories like the General Strain Theory continue to contribute to our understanding of these phenomena.