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The 1920s witnessed both the rise of jazz and the emergence of divergent opinions from critics in different locations. While jazz faced opposition and rejection from many white residents in rural areas, it garnered more favor among urban city-dwellers and consequently gained acceptance in city nightclubs and on radio stations. Urban areas proved to be better equipped for the survival of jazz due to certain characteristics like diversity, tolerance, progressiveness, technological advancements (such as media and radio), greater availability of entertainment venues, and a more educated population.
Urban and rural areas contrasted in terms of atmosphere and religious conservatism. While cities were known for their relaxed and less-religious ambiance, rural areas were dominated by a more conservative mood with a homogenous population that resisted the cultural liberalism found in cities. This cultural divide encompassed jazz and the black society as well. Conversely, urban areas fostered a socio-cultural dynamic characterized by tolerance, diversity, education, nightlife, and media, which enabled jazz to flourish and become an integral part of American culture.
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Jazz emerged between 1897 and 1917, with jazz bands encountering difficulties in recording their music until 1917. The initial recordings had poor quality. During the early stages of jazz, musicians did not depend on written music. Jazz evolved from different musical genres like blues, ragtime, and brass band music that were popular throughout the United States. The black Creole subculture in New Orleans played a crucial part in the inception of jazz (Weinstock).
The combination of "ethnic, cultural, and musical conditions" and the philosophical drive for individual expression and group interaction allowed jazz to flourish in New Orleans (Weinstock).
This indicates that New Orleans was among the first cities to foster this new counter-culture that would eventually spread across the United States. The city's prominence as a jazz hub came to an end in 1917 during World War I, when Storyville, an area known for its dance halls and bordellos where jazz was dominant, was closed by the Navy Department (Weinstock).
Overall, the United States embraced jazz, although there were still certain groups who held a dislike for it and everything it represented. These particular close-minded individuals, especially those residing in small-town America, feared the rapid societal changes brought about by jazz, believing it to be the cause of moral decay and unsettling disruptions (Roaring 1). The New York American newspaper featured an article that mirrored the sentiments of numerous conservative, white Americans who believed that jazz's "pathological, nerve-irritating, sex-exciting music" posed a moral disaster for countless young American girls (Roaring 2).
White audiences in the southern part of the States were merciless towards black individuals and their music. While the north seemed to be more accepting, there were still numerous clashes between black and white individuals. Jazz, a component of modernism, played a role in facilitating the progress of liberals who felt restricted by older conservative generations. It also provided an outlet for white musicians seeking liberation from the conservative limitations of their era. It is evident that the northern regions, primarily urban areas, embraced and adopted jazz more readily.
The rural areas' prevalent racism and general intolerance toward black culture hindered the growth of jazz. Racism, stemming from the African American origins of jazz, played a significant role in the criticism aimed at the genre, alongside concerns about its supposed corruption of American youth. This prejudice also affected conservative suburban residents who feared that their young daughters were captivated by "black music." Jazz was so intricately connected to African American culture that it was often derogatorily referred to as the "accompaniment of the voodoo dancer" (Roaring 2). Such references aimed to denigrate and undermine the significance of jazz in the black community.
They also attempted to persuade white Americans to adopt their beliefs and agree with their accusations about mind mapping. According to the Roaring 2 source, many white Americans were shocked to see their children dancing to music believed to originate from Negro brothels in the southern United States. Furthermore, numerous jazz critics gained fame by expressing their distaste for jazz. However, these critics were using their criticism as a disguise to express their political and social dislike for the black population, as stated by Anderson (135). The primary concern for white conservatives was the mixing of black and white youth who were passionate about jazz, as it was seen as part of a new counterculture. Jazz acted as a bridge connecting blacks and whites. Whites not only had emotional prejudice towards blacks but also influenced their physical behavior due to their racism.
The racist and anti-jazz white population frequently attempted to tarnish jazz by portraying it as something much more offensive than its true nature. Because jazz originated from the black population, who had previously been enslaved, it was not widely accepted as a legitimate musical genre. Jazz musicians were often portrayed as contaminants trying to spread their music throughout the general population. Many critics labeled jazz as Mumbo-Jumbo, meaning nonsense, thereby dismissing it as a genre that required talent. It appeared that there was a prevailing tendency among white individuals to oppose jazz and its black creators.
According to an article in the September 1918 issue of the Current Opinion, white critics aimed to undermine black music and culture by spreading hate towards jazz and its musicians. These critics went to extreme lengths, even suggesting lynching, kidnappings, and murders in magazine articles to intimidate the black population. Despite jazz gaining international recognition and becoming a part of American culture by the 1920s and early 1930s, racist undertones in articles on jazz persisted. The white population consistently attempted to stifle the growth of jazz through critical and controversial magazine and newspaper articles, making it clear to jazz musicians that their music was unwelcome.
The primary objective of the critics who wrote articles dehumanizing African Americans and criticizing jazz was to marginalize the jazz industry and portray African Americans as primitive individuals who sought to expand their influence on music. According to Anderson (141-42), these critics argued that while music has the power to calm even the most aggressive individuals, they failed to recognize that a distinct form of music could potentially incite primal instincts.
Anderson suggests that blacks are savages and implies that listening to jazz music will turn people into savages. By the end of 1924, jazz had gained popularity among white musicians and the white crowd. The white population adopted the belief that jazz played by white people was considered "jazz music," but if black people played it, it was considered "jungle noise" (Anderson 144). As a result, critics concluded that white and black jazz were distinct, with white jazz being pleasing while black jazz attempted to make music but only produced noise. Thus, critics played a significant role in dehumanizing jazz and the black population.
During the late 1920s to early 1930s, Jazz gained significant prominence, becoming a representative element of the new American urban culture and its people. According to Peretti, Jazz music not only became a symbol of the modern advancements that traditionalists rejected, such as new leisure activities, city life, Freud's theories, and other aspects of cultural modernism during the 1920s, but it also played a substantial role in shaping American culture. In fact, its influence was so significant that in the 1930s, white jazz musicians attempted to take credit for Jazz and were successful in many instances. As a result, white performers like Benny Goodman came to be regarded as symbolic figures of Jazz by audiences.
However, in major cities like Chicago, black musicians were recognized for their contributions to the invention of jazz, and there appeared to be a greater level of collaboration between black and white musicians. Chicago served as a primary destination for black musicians who relocated from rural to urban areas in order to perform and promote their music. Some believe that white musicians only embraced jazz for its commercial benefits and the significant public interest it garnered. Additionally, it is suggested that they may have played the music in a satirical manner, using it as a means to ridicule black musicians and the genre of jazz. While some white individuals in various locations attempted to claim credit for inventing jazz, others chose to step aside and allow the black culture to shine.
The vibrant and varied nightlife in America's major cities offered an opportunity for jazz music to connect with audiences from diverse backgrounds. Many clubs throughout the country welcomed jazz musicians of different races, particularly white and black musicians. In the 1920s, Harlem, New York emerged as the hub of jazz nightlife, known as the Harlem Renaissance, with the Cotton Club standing out as one of the leading clubs at that time.
During the era of prohibition, the Cotton Club was a popular venue for the upper class. It was known for serving alcohol and hosting jazz performances. However, black jazz musicians were not allowed to socialize with the white audience. Only white individuals were permitted to enter the club. This illustrates how white society embraced black music and culture while still discriminating against black people. Cities like New Orleans, New York, and Chicago played important roles in the development and spread of jazz to other states.
Chicago, another northern city impacted by the 'big bang' of jazz music and culture, experienced the influence of prohibition and the defiance of nightclubs. Cabarets hosted extravagant shows featuring big jazz bands, attracting Chicago residents in search of an entertaining evening. Joining the jazz scene became a way for city-dwellers to protest against prohibition, as jazz's biting and incisive nature epitomized a direct and unfiltered approach to life. This rebellious attitude offended law-abiding citizens, while being viewed as sinful by religious figures and as cheap and tacky by narrow-minded traditionalists (Dexter 34).
Not only was Chicago the site of protests against prohibition, but it also attracted many young musicians aspiring to launch successful careers in music. While some thrived, many struggled due to the oversaturation of talented musicians in the city. This led to Chicago becoming a vibrant hub for jazz. One notable gathering spot for musicians was the Three Deuces, later known as the Off-Beat Club. It served as a convenient and affordable venue for networking and jam sessions between gigs (Dexter 38). As jazz was poised for growth, various small clubs emerged in different cities where musicians could come together and appreciate a variety of songs and interpretations.
The invention of the "talkie", an early form of the jukebox, had a significant impact on the spread of jazz. Initially, musicians were unaware of how the talkie could revolutionize the music scene as live performances were the only way to listen to music. However, the talkie allowed for a raunchy reproduction of various tunes and became the perfect tool for popularizing jazz. These talkies were quickly installed in nightclubs, diners, bars, and other locations, providing customers with the freedom to listen to jazz or any other form of music. As a result, the talkie sparked a newfound interest in jazz, leading many musicians from Chicago to seek opportunities in other cities, especially New York. The invention of the talkie enabled people from across the country to enjoy jazz at their convenience.
The great cities of America in the 1920s played a crucial role in Jazz's fame, glory, and expansion. These cities, with their diverse populations and numerous entertainment venues, along with the introduction of radio and a more educated populace, created an atmosphere that embraced new ideas and forms of expression. Jazz found a warm reception in these cities and they were instrumental in shaping it into what it is today. Jazz has become an inseparable part of American culture and is widely acknowledged as the only truly American genre of music. Despite facing opposition, jazz not only persevered but also evolved to influence contemporary popular music. Skillful musicians have preserved its original essence while embracing new interpretations.
Works Cited
Anderson, Maureen writes about the reception of jazz by white Americans in her article "White Reception of Jazz in America" published in the African American Review.
8.1 135-145 (Spring 2004).
Dexter Jr., Dave. The Jazz Story: from the '90s to the '60s.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.
Peretti, Burton W. Jazz in American Culture.
Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1997.
Peretti, Burton W. "The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America."
Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992.
The PBS documentary "Jazz: A Film by Ken Burns" explores the history of the Roaring Twenties through the lens of music.
On September 7, 2004, Len Weinstock discussed "The Origins of Jazz" in The Red Hot Jazz Archive.
29 January 2005.
The Rise of Jazz: Urban vs. Rural America. (2016, Jul 19). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/jazz-urban-and-rural-reactions-in-the-1920s-essay
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