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Chinese religion and cultural beliefs in death are closely intertwined. Throughout Chinese history, various terms have been used to refer to death, including an ideogram that depicts a person kneeling in front of their ancestor's bones 1. In Chinese culture, death rites are elaborate and carefully planned rituals that prepare individuals for the afterlife and rebirth. These funeral rites adhere to strict guidelines concerning the location and manner of the rituals (such as the ritual bathing of the corpse), the attire of both attendees and the deceased, the transfer of earthly possessions to the deceased, paying respects to the departed, and finally, the burial itself.
The performance of sacred rites is carried out by specialists, often priests or other individuals who are compensated by the family of the deceased. The mourning process continues well after the burial, with rituals that involve revisiting the burial site on specific occasions to grieve, perform yuan-fen (symbolically smoothing the burial site to give it a neat appearance), and burning incense and offerings of earthly items.
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Attitudes and beliefs on death and the afterlife remain similar between the Chinese people of late Imperial Chinese culture and modern Chinese culture. The ongoing traditions of ritualistic burials provide insight into a cultural connection within society.
1. T.C. Lai wrote a book called "To The Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death" (17). It was published in 1983 by Joint Publishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh in Hong Kong.
Watson, James L. and Evelyn L. Rawski wrote a book titled "Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China" (12-15), which was published by the University of California Press in 1988.
The significance of contrasting views on death and dying in different cultures, including our own, is important to understand.
In Chinese cultures, death is not avoided but instead revered as a natural part of life. Death holds great reverence and is characterized by terms like ni 3a and qi shi 3b. The transition from mortal life to the afterlife is highly significant for the Chinese. Strict funeral rites must be fully adhered to in order to facilitate a smooth transition between this world and the realm of the deceased. These rites are deeply embedded in Chinese culture and are accompanied by specific periods of grieving that correspond to certain levels of mourning. Mourning sessions may extend over the course of a year. However, funeral rituals for individuals of higher social status differ from those of common people.
James L. Watson explains that being Chinese means comprehending and embracing the belief that there exists a proper manner in carrying out rituals related to significant life events, such as weddings and funerals. By adhering to accepted ceremonial practices, regular citizens played a role in fostering cultural cohesion. In light of this, we can start to comprehend why the Chinese adhered to such strict protocols for burying a deceased individual. The prescribed structure that was enforced upon the Chinese populace was embraced because it fostered unity among them.
3. T.C. Lai "To the Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death" (18) Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh, 1983
4. The following quote is from James L. Watson's book "Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China: The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elementary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance."
The ritual of announcing a death begins with public notification. When a death occurs, women in the presence of the deceased must wail loudly, as observed by Watson. The informal announcement is accompanied by the placement of white banners and blue lanterns around the home and doorway. In certain regions of China, these formal notices are voluntary, while in others they are mandatory.
Just like in Western culture, different colors are used to indicate mourning in China. However, instead of black, mourners in China typically wear white clothing, shoes, and cloaks made from sackcloth or hemp. While the specific mourning colors can vary in different regions of China, white is universally recognized as the color of mourning. The mourning attire is typically rough, unbleached, unhemmed, and white in color. 5
Before a corpse is buried, it must undergo multiple cleansings and blessings. One of the necessary steps in this process is a ritualized bathing of the body. In certain parts of south China, the water used for this bathing is not collected by the family themselves. Instead, it is purchased from a deity associated with a sacred well. This specific ritual is known as "mai-shui", which could be roughly translated as "buying water".
5. The Complete Book Of Death And Dying by Jones, Constance R.I.P. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997) discusses various methods of cleansing the corpse, such as scrubbing with purchased water or gently dabbing the forehead with sacred water. Additionally, the deceased is dressed in new clothes.
The next funerary ritual involved the transfer of material possessions to the deceased. This included items such as paper clothes, cardboard houses, furniture, and servants, which were burnt in a large pot to accompany the dead into the afterlife. Additionally, food was offered as a tribute to the departed, and the mourners would then share in the consumption of this food. 6
According to Stuart E. Thompson, food plays a crucial role in Chinese tradition and culture, particularly in the burial rituals. Thompson notes that being Chinese involves participating in Chinese rituals, which includes consuming Chinese-style food with Chinese-style utensils. The purpose of using food in these rites is to metamorphose a deceased individual into an ancestor. Consequently, food takes on a prominent role in the various aspects of the ritual.
In Chinese culture, food plays an important role in the rituals surrounding death. When a person dies, food is presented to them. This is done again during the ceremonial coffining of the body. Rice, being a staple in Chinese diet, is commonly placed on top of the coffin, along with other food items like roast pork, to accompany the deceased on their journey. Certain parts of the ceremony serve to separate the living from the dead, such as breaking bowls to sever the ties between the deceased and their descendants. Following the breaking of the bowls...
6. According to James L. Watson in "The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites" from Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (12-13), it is the responsibility of family members to ensure that the deceased does not return upset. To accomplish this, the belongings of the deceased must be symbolically distributed among his or her heirs using food placed on top of the coffin.
After the body is placed in the coffin, the daughter-in-law of the deceased presents food to the coffin at least two times a day. These offerings are made until the coffin is buried and sometimes even continue after burial.
3. The farewell feast is held either the day before or on the day of the burial to mark the completion of the transformation from being deceased to becoming an ancestor. Prized offerings for this occasion typically include pig heads or whole pigs, along with rice. In addition to the feast for the deceased, offerings are also given to hungry ghosts, who often steal from the deceased during their journey.
4. Prior to the body becoming an ancestor, typically rice wine is poured into three cups on the burial grounds as the final ritual for the deceased.
After the burial, food is served again when everyone goes back to the home where the ceremony started. Following this, ancestral tablets (which will be further explained later on) are placed on specially constructed altars or mantles. In my own family, we have the ashes of our deceased loved ones on a mantle where food is offered to them during every meal.
Thompson, Stuart E. wrote a paper titled "Death, Food, And Fertility" which is included in the book Death Ritual in the Late Imperial and Modern China. The specific pages where this paper can be found are 75-76.
The soul tablets serve as a representation of a portion of the deceased's soul and are created specifically for individuals who are not children or unknown persons. Ritual specialists are responsible for crafting these tablets, which are then placed on altars for married individuals or in designated temples, institutions, or covenants for unmarried women, all in exchange for a fee. These tablets hold great significance in the rituals surrounding the deceased. In order to receive a tablet, it is necessary for the individual to have a written Chinese name, which is why strangers without such names are ineligible. It is worth noting that the recognition of the dead is not based on materialistic idols or pictures, but solely on their written Chinese name.
Music was an essential aspect of the burial process, serving the purpose of either repelling malevolent spirits or assisting the soul's journey. During burial rituals, the prevalent sounds were high-pitched piping and drumming, which were typically played when the corpse was being moved. Another significant moment for music was during the sealing of the coffin, which the Chinese considered the most crucial element of the entire ceremony. Wooden coffins have been used by the Chinese since ancient times. To ensure immobility within the coffin, specialists are employed to secure the lid with nails and caulking compounds, creating an airtight seal. The act of nailing the coffin is of utmost importance and is usually carried out by the primary mourner or a distinguished guest with high social standing.
The final step is the village's removal of the coffin. Nonetheless, this final ritual does not have to be done right away. In fact, it is a gesture of honor for the coffin to stay near the family for an extended period. Eventually, however, the time comes for the living to let go of the coffin. 8
According to Watson (Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, 109), individuals who are relatively affluent will have the means to conduct all burial rituals with the aid of a burial expert. The ethnographic evidence suggests that within the Cantonese society, there exists a hierarchical structure of specialists based on their exposure to the pollution of death. This hierarchy also reflects the necessary levels of expertise, training, and literacy in order to carry out ceremonial duties. At the pinnacle of the hierarchy is the Geomancer, who possesses the ability to predict the future by interpreting signs from the earth. This role requires exceptional skill and literacy. Following the Geomancer are priests, who acquire their knowledge through years of apprenticeship. In order to perform mortuary rites, priests require a moderate level of literacy.
Typically, those who rank below priests are often illiterate as their line of work does not require reading or skill. These individuals include pipers, nuns, musicians, and other general helpers. Additionally, there are even lower-ranking helpers known as corpse handlers. The tasks of corpse handlers consist of washing, dressing, and arranging the corpse in the coffin. They also carry the coffin to its burial place, dig the grave, and dispose of items associated with the deceased individual. Due to their proximity to death, corpse handlers are considered the lowest-ranking ritual specialists and are considered highly polluted.
Watson, James L. Death Rituals in Late Imperial and Modern China (12-15)
According to James L. Watson (9), in his article "Funeral Specialists in Cantonese Society: Pollution, Performance, and Social Hierarchy" in the book Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (109-110), funeral specialists play an important role in Cantonese society.
Along with the sequence of rituals, there are various names for death. As previously mentioned, the earliest concept of death involved a person bowing before their ancestors' remains. The deaths of individuals belonging to different social ranks are distinguished from one another. The death of a ruler is referred to as beng, derived from the sound of a collapsing large building. The death of a prince is called hong, representing the sound of something breaking. A government minister's death is called cu, meaning "the end," while an official's death is called bu lu, which signifies the cessation of enjoying emoluments. In contrast, the death of an ordinary person is less extravagant - si simply means "to expire." Similarly, there are multiple terms for the ways people can die, such as shou zhong meaning "the termination of longevity" for death from old age and yao meaning "breaking in mid-journey" for death at a young age.
The curiosity of the Chinese regarding death is evident in their various ways of expressing it through a couple of words. China dedicates the spring season for purification and rejuvenation. The Spring Festival, occurring annually, holds significant value for the deceased. Descendants pay tribute to their ancestors by visiting their graves and taking care of their burial grounds and bodies. This period involves offering prayers and sacrifices to the dead, with the customary practice of "saluting the tomb."
Text 18 is an adapted version from the book "To the Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death" written by T.C. Lai, published in 1983 by Joint Publishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh in Hong Kong.
"Saluting the tomb" is a ritual in which red-colored rice and peeled eggs, representing the saying "old gives way to the new", are placed on the burial ground. November is the month when Ghost Day celebrations take place, during which people burn paper money as offerings to their ancestors. Another celebration is the Winter Dress Festival, observed in October and November, where paper clothes and other items are burned as offerings to ancestors.
In China, there are celebrations that do not directly involve spirits in unrest. The Chinese believe in spirits known as ghosts, with males called kuei and females called yao. These spirits are associated with deaths that were either very unusual or resulted from violent criminal acts. The Chinese culture is highly superstitious and it is believed that ghosts tend to stay close to the locations of their deaths. For instance, the spirits of thieves may be observed near the vicinity where they were executed. Additionally, a prevailing superstition states that if a pregnant woman passes by a spot where someone has died, the spirit of that deceased person may attempt to expel the soul of the unborn child and possess it for rebirth. Chinese culture also recognizes anniversary ghosts, who appear on the date of their death to reenact the events surrounding their demise. The only way to stop this reenactment is if someone else dies in the same place, same manner, and on the same day, thus releasing the trapped soul from its cycle of reliving a painful death.
Unfortunately, the individual who has passed away will be destined to relive their existence.
11. Jones, Constance The Complete Book of Death and Dying (135)
12. Unless a specialist performs a ritual to set the spirit free, Jones, Constance states in The Complete Book of Death and Dying (129) that the spirit will not be able to move on after death.
Chinese culture holds a deep reverence for the deceased and their forefathers, as evidenced by their customs and traditions. The Chinese perspectives on death are shaped by significant influences from Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism 13.
"Without knowledge of life, it is impossible to gain an understanding of death."
Confucius, as depicted in Figure 1.
The Chinese commemorate the deceased on a regular basis through the presentation of offerings and prayers. They hold the belief that engaging in these customs serves to remind them that death is a constant part of life and should be embraced in daily existence.
13. Jones, Constance R.I.P. The Complete Book of Death and Dying (12)
14. Figure 1 is sourced from T.C. Lai's book "To The Yellow Springs" (14).
Please ensure that you include the appropriate images from books in this essay as indicated by the blank spaces.
Chinese Death Rites: A Cultural Connection. (2016, Jul 07). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/chinese-views-on-death-and-dying-essay
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