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William Cronon's book Changes in the Land discusses the transformations in New England's plant and animal ecosystems that occurred during the transition from Native American to European control. Cronon argues that while historians are familiar with the changes in human societies during this transition, they often overlook the significant impact it had on the region's flora and fauna.
Describing changes in the region between 1600 and 1800, Cronon heavily relies on the writings of early European visitors to suggest the great variety and abundance of plant and animal life in pre-settlement New England, blurring the boundaries between Europe and North America.
He also assigns subsequent inhabitants.
Over time the Europeans impacted ecosystems differently than the pre-colonial relationship between Indians and the land. Cronon discusses the disagreements of Indians and Europeans regarding the uses of natural resources and he outlines different concepts of property. Cronon uses evidence to explain the events that led to the dramatic consequences, following the European contact with New England.
Cronon notes that when European settlers first arrived in New England, they were amazed by the environment they encountered.
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The descriptions focused on the coastline, but all agreed on the abundance of animal and plant life. Unlike in England, where hunting was limited to large landowners, there was vast untamed land in New England. The settlers were also surprised by the lack of domesticated animals, which were important for European agriculture.
The cycle of the seasons and the relative climate of the area was similar to England. By 1600, there were approximately 70,000-100,000 Indians already residing in New England, a significant population compared to the 93,000 European settlers living there by 1700. The European settlers and the Indigenous people had contrasting beliefs and practices when it came to land use and ownership, with the Indians having a different understanding of property.
Indian communities adapted to seasonal diversity and developed an intimate relationship with the land. Crono highlights that European visitors often viewed Indian communities as impoverished despite the abundance of their environment (33). To take advantage of seasonal resources, Indians practiced mobility by living in portable houses and owning only essential belongings. They might fish during spawning runs in early spring, move to the coast for non-spawning fish later in the season, and hunt birds and pick berries leading up to the late summer harvest.
During winter, the Indians would divide into smaller groups for hunting, a practice common in this region for supplementing food supplies and clothing. The denser populations and the burning of woodlands in southern New England led to sparse forests. As a result, the Indians in each area interacted with the land differently, shaping it uniquely. Despite these differences, they shared a common perspective on property as something of immediate use rather than as individualized, absolute, and permanent possession.
In his argument, Cronon points out that Indian societies had less surplus property and experienced less theft compared to European societies. He also mentions that English settlers tended to value natural resources based on their market worth rather than their practical use.
The settlers viewed Indians as inadequate economic stewards, puzzled by their willingness to endure hunger in the winter despite knowing food scarcity was approaching. They admired the Indians' practice of burning the forest, creating better hunting and planting grounds. However, they criticized the division of labor among Indian men and women, noting that farming, traditionally done by men in Europe, was mainly carried out by Indian women.
Indian males preferred hunting instead of Europeans, who hunted for sport. In England, wild animals were scarce except on the private properties of the wealthy elite. Therefore, the settlers viewed Indian males as lazy due to their different hunting habits, which reflected varying origins and values between the groups.
While Europeans believed in land ownership, Indians had a different view of property. Their concept of ownership was influenced by their connection to the land through seasonal diversity. They believed ownership was based on what individuals created with their own hands. This led to the ownership of agricultural fields, gathering areas, and fishing sites, with specific patterns established for hunting different animals.
European settlers were either given land by the crown or bought it from the natives, showing the Europeans' perspective on land-use and their lack of respect for the Indians' ownership claims. Unlike the Indians' seasonal migration, the settlers aimed to "improve" the land.
Europeans relied more on agriculture than the Native Americans did. They also brought livestock like cattle, hogs, and sheep to the environment. The use of domesticated grazing mammals and the invention of the plow were key features of European agricultural practices.
Europeans destroyed large swaths of forest to make room for crops and pasture, as native grasses were not suitable for pasturing. The forests were also used for fences, ship’s masts, potash, and fuel. Deforestation had a significant impact on Indian hunting grounds, altering their way of life permanently. According to Cronon (122), the regional deforestation had profound ecological effects, even affecting the climate. Swamps emerged in once dry areas, leading to the spread of disease. Trade transformed the area, prompting Indians to assign values to certain items for the first time.
European traders exchanged wampum with Indigenous peoples from Long Island Sound to New England in return for goods like furs, linking Native economies to global markets and encouraging increased production. Advances in technology made hunting more efficient, leading to strained animal populations in New England from over hunting. By the late 17th century, the fur trade in the north had vanished and deer populations were declining. With dwindling trade opportunities, Indigenous peoples were left with no choice but to surrender their last asset - their land.
The introduction of European livestock had significant ecological impacts on New England. Colonists would often release hogs into the wild, where they could survive and multiply freely. These hogs became known as "weed" creatures because their growing population started causing problems for both Native Americans and colonists. The compacted soil made it difficult for plants to thrive, ultimately reducing the soil's ability to hold water. The most devastating impact of European arrival in America was the spread of diseases. These diseases wiped out as much as 90% of the Native American population in certain areas, disrupted planting and harvesting cycles, and heightened starvation rates.
According to Europeans, the spread of disease justified their removal of Indian claims to land. Cronon argues that while disease had biological origins, social and economic factors in Europe led carriers of microparasites to travel across the Atlantic. The first epidemic in New England occurred in the south in 1616, resulting in depopulation that created turmoil and provided justification for Europeans seizing Indian lands.
With the decline of Indian populations, the forest reclaimed its edges, impacting local animal populations. Colonist attacks and intertribal conflicts forced Indians into denser settlements, leading to the spread of disease. The introduction of European animals made it necessary for Indians to build fences to protect their crops. Living in permanent, fenced-in communities, the Indian way of life now resembled that of Europe more than their original lifestyle. New England was irrevocably altered, marking a significant change in Native American culture.
Changes in the land is a valuable resource for those interested in New England's history, especially its evolving ecology.
Impact of European Colonization on New England Ecosystems. (2016, May 11). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/changes-in-the-land-cronon-essay
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