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The 1890s marked a decisive diplomatic turning point in American history as the United States transitioned from a primarily isolationist foreign policy to one characterized by assertive expansionism, ultimately establishing itself as an imperialist power by 1900. This monumental shift was fueled by profound changes in the American economy and shifts in public sentiment. The industrial revolution of the late 19th century emerged as a driving force, compelling the nation to seek new markets for its burgeoning industrial output and secure raw materials essential for sustaining its economic growth.
Unlike previous decades, the expansion during the 1890s was not centered on territorial acquisition for statehood; instead, it aimed at establishing spheres of influence to support foreign trade.
The closure of the American frontier in 1890 further exacerbated the situation. With the Census report declaring the absence of a frontier, the nation faced a dilemma—continue territorial expansion or withdraw into isolation. The impetus towards expansion prevailed, leading to the pursuit of an overseas empire.
Two pivotal elements contributed to the expansionist and imperialistic fervor.
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Firstly, the economic interests of the United States played a crucial role in territorial acquisitions. The annexation of Hawaii serves as a prime example where American-owned sugar companies, facing economic challenges due to the McKinley tariff bill of 1890, orchestrated a political coup and sought annexation to safeguard their interests. Secondly, the desire to spread Christianity abroad became intertwined with the expansionist agenda, exemplified by American missionaries in Hawaii influencing the socio-economic landscape.
By 1890, American economic and religious interests in the island kingdom were a permanent feature of the society.
When the McKinley tariff bill of 1890 sought to stimulate the American sugar beet industry by placing a duty on imported sugar and giving a two cent a pound bonus for domestically grown sugar, the American-owned sugar companies faced a serious economic problem. From the standpoint of the American sugar companies in Hawaii, the answer to their economic problem was simple: have Hawaii annexed by the United States so that Hawaiian sugar was domestic, not foreign grown. The flaw in that solution was that the Hawaiian people had no desire to become American. This popular aversion to annexation was reflected in the refusal of the Hawaiian leader, Queen Liliuokalani, to request an American take-over. The sugar company executives, with the timely assistance of a contingent of American marines who marched through Honolulu to "protect American lives and property," simply staged a political coup and asked for annexation.
After President Cleveland refused, President McKinley acquiesced in 1898. America's desire to extend its influence beyond its borders was not limited to overt acts of annexation. In the case of a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana, United States' action took the form of a virtual diplomatic ultimatum to England, insisting that Britain send no troops to press its boundary claims. The United States would set up a boundary commission to arbitrate the dispute and determine the legitimate boundaries. After initially declining American "good offices," Great Britain accepted after U.S. Secretary of State Olney asserted that the United States was "practically sovereign" in this hemisphere and threatened military action. This rather high-handed maneuver reflected growing U.S. "power of persuasion."
The most dramatic manifestation of America's imperialistic foreign policy unfolded during the Spanish-American War of 1898. While the United States had initially remained distant from Cuba's struggle for independence, a confluence of factors, including sensationalist journalism led by William Randolph Hearst and the sinking of the USS Maine, propelled the nation into war with Spain. Despite the Teller Resolution's promise not to annex Cuba, the aftermath of the war witnessed the incorporation of the Platt Amendment, effectively granting the U.S. a quasi-protectorate over Cuba.
Moreover, the war resulted in the annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands, acquired from Spain. The Philippine insurrection against U.S. annexation, driven by concerns over forced incorporation, opposition from anti-imperialists, and apprehensions of involvement in Far East conflicts, added complexity to the imperialistic venture. This internal dissent highlighted the diverse opinions within the United States regarding imperial expansion.
And while the war did not lead to U.S. acquisition of Cuba, it did result in United States' annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands (acquired from Spain). The Filipinos expressed their aversion to becoming an American territory by engaging in a guerilla war against the U.S. when annexation was proposed. Indeed, the Philippine insurrection against the U.S. was more costly in terms of money and American lives lost than had been the Spanish-American war. Nor was everyone in the U.S. in favor of Philippine annexation. Anti-imperialists claimed that the Philippines might involve us in a war in the Far East, and that forced annexation violated the traditional American belief in "government by the consent of the governed." American labor leaders joined in opposition to acquisition lest it lead to the introduction of cheap Philippine labor. American racism also rallied against acquiring "yellow-skinned" territories.
Simultaneously, the desire to extend economic influence to the Far East led to diplomatic tensions. By 1900, China had succumbed to European imperialism in the form of spheres of influence each of the major European powers and Japan had established. Concerned that this would lead to those powers excluding the U.S. from the China trade, the U.S. sent a round-robin diplomatic note to all of them asserting that it was the U.S. policy, and assumed it was theirs as well, to provide an "Open Door" for trade with China. This was followed by a second "Open Door" note affirming respect for the "territorial and administrative integrity" of China. Reluctantly most of the nations gave lukewarm assent.
In light of these events, delving deeper into the complexities of America's imperialist endeavors becomes crucial. Economic interests and territorial acquisitions were not the sole driving forces; the intersection of economic and religious motivations, as seen in the annexation of Hawaii, exemplifies the multifaceted nature of American imperialism. The intertwining of missionary efforts with economic interests showcases how these forces collectively shaped the trajectory of American foreign policy.
Furthermore, the Spanish-American War stands as a watershed moment, not just in terms of military conflict but also in the ideological and political realms. The war, fueled by a mix of sensationalist journalism, public sentiment, and geopolitical considerations, laid the foundation for America's imperialistic ventures in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The annexation of territories like Puerto Rico and the Philippines reflected a strategic move to assert dominance in regions with economic significance.
Internal dissent and opposition to imperialist endeavors, as witnessed in the case of the Philippine insurrection, highlighted the diversity of opinions within the United States. Anti-imperialists raised concerns about potential entanglements in Far East conflicts, the violation of the principle of "government by the consent of the governed," and the introduction of cheap foreign labor, reflecting the nuances and debates surrounding imperial expansion. American racism also played a significant role, rallying against acquiring "yellow-skinned" territories, showcasing the intersection of imperial ambitions and racial biases.
The imperialistic endeavors of the 1890s left an indelible mark on America's global role, shaping its diplomatic, economic, and political trajectory for years to come. The quasi-protectorate established over Cuba through the Platt Amendment demonstrated a strategic foothold in the Caribbean, while the acquisition of territories in the Pacific expanded America's influence in the Far East.
Furthermore, the diplomatic initiatives such as the "Open Door" policy reflected America's determination to safeguard its economic interests in a rapidly changing global landscape. The willingness to challenge established spheres of influence and assert the right to unrestricted trade showcased a newfound confidence on the international stage.
In conclusion, the 1890s stand as a transformative decade in American history, characterized by a shift from isolationism to imperialism. Driven by economic interests, religious motivations, and geopolitical considerations, the United States embarked on an imperialist odyssey that shaped its global role. The complex tapestry of imperialism, woven with economic pursuits, missionary endeavors, and political maneuvers, reveals the intricate nature of America's foray into global affairs during this period.
America's Imperial Odyssey: Decoding the Transformative 1890s. (2016, Mar 17). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/annexation-of-hawaii-essay
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