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In this project, the focus is on the behavioral theory and humanistic theory within the field of psychology. The research is primarily centered on two influential behavioral theorists, Burrhus Fredric Skinner and John Broadus Watson, and two prominent humanistic theorists, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Behavioral theory, founded on the principles of psychological behaviorism, emphasizes the observable aspects of behavior, with John Watson asserting that internal thought processes are not directly observable and thus should not be the primary focus of psychologists.
Burrhus Fredric Skinner, an American psychologist, social philosopher, behaviorist, inventor, and author, developed the theory of Operant conditioning, which posits that we learn new behaviors through traditional or operant conditioning, and that all behavior is learned from the environment.
On the other hand, humanistic theory, exemplified by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, centers its attention on the self and the individual's interpretation of their experiences. It encourages individuals to make choices about their behaviors rather than simply responding to environmental stimuli and reinforcers.
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Humanistic theorists emphasize concepts such as self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and human needs, with the ultimate goal of promoting personal development.
Abraham Maslow, one of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology, introduced the hierarchy of needs, which suggests that fulfilling needs in a specific order enables individuals to reach self-actualization, the pinnacle of personal development. Conversely, Carl Rogers, known for his Client-Centered theory, proposed that, in addition to meeting hierarchical needs, individuals require a positive environment characterized by approval, understanding, and authenticity to achieve self-actualization. Rogers argued that without these nurturing elements in one's environment, the development of healthy personalities and relationships would be hindered.
The humanistic perspective places a strong emphasis on the self, emphasizing the importance of individual opinions and experiences. It asserts that individuals have the capacity to choose their own behaviors rather than being driven solely by external stimuli. Key theorists associated with this perspective are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Carl Rogers argued that each person operates from a unique frame of reference when constructing their self-regard or self-concept, which represents one's beliefs about themselves. These beliefs are influenced by the presence of unconditional positive regard, where individuals, particularly parents, express unconditional love, and conditional positive regard, where love is contingent on meeting specific conditions.
Rogers's theory posits that psychologically healthy individuals fully enjoy life and are considered fully functioning. In his view, a nurturing environment, characterized by love, respect, and authenticity, plays a crucial role in an individual's development. Abraham Maslow, on the other hand, developed his theory by studying healthy, productive, and creative individuals rather than focusing on mentally ill patients, as was the norm in psychology. He introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, which outlines a hierarchical sequence of needs that must be met, from physiological needs to self-actualization. According to Maslow, individuals have the potential to contribute positively to society and become respectable individuals if their needs are adequately fulfilled.
Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s as a movement aimed at understanding the essence of human beings. It expanded the scope of psychology beyond unconscious thoughts, beliefs, or automatic behavioral responses, delving into the realms of free will, emotions, ethics, and interpersonal relationships. Humanistic psychotherapy was initially introduced as the "third force" in psychotherapy, providing therapists and clients with an opportunity to focus on the client's strengths and challenges.
Central to humanistic psychotherapy is the emphasis on emotional authenticity, with therapists valuing the therapeutic relationship between themselves and their clients. While some critics argue that humanistic theory blends medical and scientific aspects with philosophy and subjectivity, it is challenging to dismiss the theory when the American Psychological Association (APA) asserts that it is centered on "people's capacity to make rational choices and develop to their maximum potential." Moreover, various methodologies within humanistic therapy emphasize the importance of the therapist-client relationship, viewing it as an integral part of the treatment process, where the relationship itself serves as a form of therapy.
The emergence of humanism in psychology was a response to the dominant theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanists believed that psychoanalysis, with its focus on unconscious thoughts, neglected the importance of conscious human experiences and the thoughts they generated. Unlike behaviorism, which portrayed humans as passive subjects of conditioning, humanists asserted that individuals have greater control over their responses and behaviors.
Humanist thinkers shifted their attention to the essence of being human and the entire spectrum of human emotions and experiences.
Humanists challenged the validity of statistical and numerical data in capturing the richness of the human experience, deeming such measures as irrelevant to their research. Instead, they advocated for qualitative research methods, including case studies, unstructured interviews, and diary accounts. This approach exemplified an idiographic perspective, emphasizing the in-depth study of individuals to gain a profound understanding of the human condition.
Central to humanistic theory was the concept of congruence, where an individual's actual self aligns with their ideal self. Humanists believed that the pursuit of self-knowledge and self-improvement was essential in achieving this state of congruence. In the humanistic view, all individuals possess inherent worth solely by virtue of being human, regardless of their actions being positive or negative. Actions do not diminish an individual's worth.
The humanistic approach examines individuals as whole entities rather than analyzing separate components. Previous theories had often dissected the unconscious mind or observable behavior, neglecting the examination of how individuals think and feel. Humanism was groundbreaking for shifting the focus to the essence of humanity rather than relying solely on scientific laboratory data.
Abraham Maslow, a key figure in humanistic psychology, developed the Hierarchy of Needs, a framework that outlines a sequence of needs individuals must fulfill to attain self-actualization or congruence. The hierarchy begins with basic physiological needs such as air, food, and water, progressing to safety, love and belonging, self-esteem, and knowledge. It culminates with aesthetics and self-actualization, a level that only a few individuals reach in their lifetime.
Humanists strongly believed in the concept of free will, asserting that humans possess the innate ability to make choices in their lives independently of external forces. They rejected the idea that behavioral conditioning or animalistic drives dictated human choices, emphasizing that individuals naturally gravitate towards positive choices and can exercise their free will at any time.
Humanism emerged as a response to the notion of humans as mechanistic beings, offering a holistic and fundamentally optimistic perspective on human nature. The humanistic, or "third force," perspective posited that the sources of personal distress were rooted in conscious awareness and experiences.
Abraham Maslow developed a motivational theory based on a hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization at its pinnacle. However, he regarded self-actualization as a rare achievement attained only by a select few who had met all lower-level needs.
Carl Rogers also emphasized self-actualization, perceiving it as a driving force in all individuals, including babies. The core concept of humanistic theory, the Actualizing Tendency, asserts that humans possess an inherent drive toward thriving and personal growth.
Humanistic therapies adopt a "potentiality model" of human development rather than a "deficiency model" seen in other therapeutic approaches. Rogers proposed that personal distress results from incongruence between the Real Self, shaped by self-actualization, and the Ideal Self, influenced by external pressures such as societal expectations and family demands. The greater the incongruence, the greater the distress.
Therapy aims to achieve congruence, where the Real Self aligns with the Ideal Self or at least reduces incongruence and distress. This is accomplished by cultivating an unconditional sense of self-worth, which is internalized as Unconditional Positive Self-Regard. In the therapeutic relationship, counselors and clients form a personal connection, with the quality of this relationship being paramount to success.
Humanistic therapy encompasses various approaches, with Gestalt therapy being one of the well-known alternatives to Rogerian person-centered therapy. Gestalt therapy, founded by Fritz Perls, shares a focus on process over content and emphasizes acceptance and self-valuing. One unique aspect of Gestalt theory is the concept of Unfinished Situations, where therapy aims to restore balance in response to disruptions in a person's natural state of homeostasis.
The humanistic theory has had a profound impact on our society, particularly during the social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. It inspired many individuals to introspectively search for direction and meaning in their lives. Additionally, it reignited the age-old debate surrounding free will and determinism while emphasizing the importance of understanding the subjective experiences of individuals (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).
Roger's client-centered therapy, a product of humanistic theory, continues to exert a significant influence in the field of psychology and counseling. Furthermore, humanistic theorists played a pivotal role in reasserting the concept of self as the core of our conscious experience within the field of psychology. However, the very strength of the humanistic perspective, its focus on conscious experience, becomes its greatest weakness when approached as a scientific endeavor. Ultimately, one's conscious experience is known or knowable only to the individual experiencing it. Thus, the challenge arises as to how humanistic psychologists can accurately and precisely measure the private, subjective experiences of others. They argue that scientific efforts should still be made to study conscious experience, as to do otherwise would mean disregarding the very subject matter they aim to understand - human experience.
Humanistic psychologists, along with cognitive psychologists, have developed methods to study conscious experience, including the use of rating scales and thought diaries that allow individuals to share their private experiences in a systematic and measurable manner. Although such verbal or written expressions are a step removed from direct consciousness, they serve as a means for scientists to investigate people's subjective experiences. Critics, however, raise concerns about the potential for the humanistic approach to foster self-indulgence and excessive self-absorption, leading individuals to disregard the welfare of others. Additionally, the concept of self-actualization poses challenges in terms of measurement, as it may vary greatly among individuals. Humanistic psychologists argue that different people may achieve self-actualization in unique ways, making standardized measurements unrealistic.
Nurses are tasked with providing individualized care that recognizes the holistic needs of each patient. They aim to understand not only the health needs of their patients but also their behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, with the goal of enhancing their overall well-being. While nursing practice has developed its own body of knowledge, it is still enriched by insights from psychology, sociology, and biology. Applying psychological theories to healthcare practice allows for mutual growth, benefiting both the client and the nurse.
The humanistic theory aligns well with nursing's emphasis on caring and patient-centeredness, which are increasingly challenged by the scientific and technologically driven aspects of modern healthcare. The humanistic perspective, like the psychodynamic theory, is fundamentally motivational, positing that motivation arises from individuals' needs, subjective self-perceptions, and the desire for personal growth. It recognizes the importance of a positive self-concept and open, supportive environments that respect individuality and freedom of choice.
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a key component of humanistic theory, has particular relevance to nursing care. It underscores the significance of addressing physiological, safety, love and belonging, and self-esteem needs before individuals can focus on self-actualization and personal growth. Understanding and meeting these basic-level needs is essential in fostering a conducive environment for learning and self-actualization.
Furthermore, humanistic psychology emphasizes the role of the therapist or healthcare provider in conveying unconditional positive regard and respect for the individual. This approach recognizes the healing power of a therapeutic relationship characterized by empathy, acceptance, and genuine concern for the patient. The humanistic perspective challenges professionals to facilitate the growth and self-actualization of their patients rather than acting as authoritative figures.
In nursing practice, the humanistic theory's principles find application in safe clinical environments, where caring, role modeling, small group discussions, case analyses, self-awareness, and empathy are integral components of patient care. These principles have also been incorporated into self-help groups, wellness programs, and palliative care, enhancing the overall patient experience. Moreover, humanistic theory has proven effective in working with children and young patients experiencing separation anxiety due to illness or surgery, as well as in the domains of mental health and palliative care.
In conclusion, the humanistic theory offers valuable insights and practical applications in nursing practice, aligning with the profession's emphasis on patient-centered care, empathy, and holistic well-being. Its focus on individual growth, self-actualization, and the therapeutic relationship enriches the field of nursing and contributes to more compassionate and effective patient care.
It is often perceived that individuals with psychosis or schizophrenia are resistant to psychotherapy. However, it is argued here that therapy, particularly humanistic therapy, can be beneficial to individuals with psychosis. The effectiveness of therapy may be contingent on the therapist's ability to comprehend how this approach can be applied to the challenges of psychosis. While there is a prevalent belief that schizophrenics do not respond well to psychotherapy, it is suggested that therapy's success or failure may be influenced more by the therapist's qualities than the characteristics of the psychotic individual.
Carl Rogers introduced a theoretical perspective known as "humanistic theory" and a therapeutic approach referred to as "person-centered therapy." Several key ideas from Rogers' perspective are relevant to this discussion. First, Rogers introduced the concept of "conditions of worth" and the notion of the "actualizing tendency." In our society, individuals are subjected to "conditions of worth," which necessitate specific behaviors to receive rewards, implying that one is deemed worthy only if they conform to acceptable behavior. For instance, in our society, monetary rewards are granted for employment. For schizophrenic individuals, these conditions of worth often lead to stigmatization. Psychotic individuals may unintentionally deviate from behaviors that yield rewards, which can result in the perception that they are parasitic to society. Such judgments only exacerbate their suffering. The mentally ill, especially those with psychosis, often experience deprivation in social, personal, and financial aspects of life.
Rogers strongly opposed the concept of conditions of worth and believed that humans and other organisms have an inherent drive to fulfill their potential. This drive, termed the "actualizing tendency" or "force of life," motivates all living beings to develop their full potential. Rogers contended that mental illness is a reflection of distortions in the actualizing tendency due to flawed conditions of worth. Psychotic individuals, in particular, contend with skewed conditions of worth and suffer from stigmatization, which compounds their self-denigration and self-laceration, ultimately leading to a destruction of selfhood.
The mentally ill often engage in self-abuse, which could diminish if society refrained from applying stigmas to them. Despite the prevailing notion that psychotic individuals are unresponsive to psychotherapy, Rogers' theory and compassionate therapy may hold promise for the mentally ill. Key components of Rogers' approach to psychotherapy include unconditional positive regard, accurate empathy, and genuineness. These qualities are integral to the humanistic therapy process.
Unconditional positive regard is characterized by accepting and warmth toward the client, irrespective of what the client reveals about their emotional struggles or experiences. Accurate empathy involves understanding the client from their own perspective and feeling sympathy based on their reality. Genuineness entails being truthful and authentic in one's interactions with the client, representing integrity and a real self-presentation. Rogers believed that as a therapist, one could be authentic while intentionally saying and doing what is necessary to help the client.
The goal of therapy from the humanistic perspective is to enable the client to achieve congruence between their real self and ideal self. This entails reconciling one's expectations of who they should be with an acceptance of who they are. As self-esteem grows through therapy, the client becomes more accepting of their real self, reducing the pressure to conform to an idealized self-image. It is the therapist's qualities of unconditional positive regard, accurate empathy, and genuineness that facilitate the process of achieving congruence from the client's perspective.
For individuals experiencing schizophrenia, their subjective experiences can be bewildering, making it challenging for therapists, psychiatrists, and clinicians to comprehend their perspectives. However, if clinicians could understand the profound isolation and hallucinations experienced by schizophrenics, they might better empathize with the mentally ill. The solitariness within the minds of schizophrenics is one of the most painful aspects of their condition, even amidst the clamor of auditory hallucinations.
The acceptance and empathy of a therapist can be instrumental in reducing the negative consequences of stigma for mentally ill patients. Social acceptance is crucial for coping with schizophrenia and can lead to self-acceptance by the schizophrenic individual. Conditions of worth that result from stigmatization affect the mentally ill more severely, but simple acceptance and empathy from a clinician may be partially curative, even for those with chronic mental illness.
In person-centered therapy, the client leads the conversation, which can be beneficial for psychotic individuals, provided they feel heard by their therapist. While the therapist may need to stretch their understanding to grasp the client's subjective perspective, the humanistic approach is applicable to all individuals, rooted in the psychology of human beings. Carl Rogers' approach offers hope for alleviating psychosis through therapy.
Behavioral and Humanistic Theories in Psychology. (2016, Apr 18). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/explore-the-behavioral-and-humanistic-theory-essay
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