The Congress of Vienna and the Emergence of Liberalism

At the Congress of Vienna, the Great Powers sought to achieve postwar stability and develop a peaceful international relations system. Their goals included redrawing the map of Europe following Napoleon's defeat and restoring regimes to their original rulers. Chief architects of the Congress, like Metternich, hoped to establish secure states with guaranteed borders.

The Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic came together to form a new kingdom. The German states formed the German Confederation, which built upon Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine.

Napoleon's duchy of Warsaw became the Kingdom of Poland, with the tsar of Russia as its king. Prussia acquired territory in Saxony and the left bank of the Rhine.

Austria seized control of the Italian territories of Lombardy and Venetia, as well as the Dalmatian coast. Metternich's goal was to curb French aggression while ensuring France remained a significant power. The key figures involved in the negotiations for the Treaty of Paris were Metternich representing Austria, Castlereagh representing Great Britain, Nesselrode representing Russia, Hardenberg representing Prussia, and Tallerand representing France.

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Metternich was the leader of the Congress. France was added as the fifth power and they wanted to restore power to rulers based on divine right. The goal was to achieve "balanced power" and stability for Europe, which would be in the hands of the Main Powers.

2. The emergence of Liberalism as a distinct political and social ideology in the early 19th century was characterized by its supporters' desire to establish legal equality regardless of social order, religious toleration, freedom of the press, and freedom of the governed.

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This ideology aimed to prevent uprisings or revolutions. 19th century liberals such as Adam Smith (Laissez-Faire economics), John Locke, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo based their ideas on the theories of natural law and utilitarianism, specifically in the realm of economic liberalism. These early liberals differed from their modern counterparts of the same name. Furthermore, Liberalism in the early 19th century differed from socialism and conservatism.

Louis 18th (1814-1815) made a promise to rule with a liberal constitution and refused to succumb to extreme royalists. However, the system in place at the time was not very democratic, as only 100 thousand individuals out of a population of 30 million were eligible to vote. In 1824, Louis 18th passed away and his younger brother Charles X assumed power with the intention of reverting back to the way things were managed in 1789. This led to a revolution in 1830, overthrowing Charles X and installing Louis Philippe, a cousin, as the king. Louis Philippe was dubbed as the "citizen king" and his reign lasted from 1830-1848. During this period, he decided to adopt the revolutionary flag. However, this era was considered a failure as it did not bring about significant change and many were expecting more. The concept of socialism, which entails common ownership of property and views capitalism as mismanagement, gained traction during this time and appealed to the lower classes as well as the emerging urban classes.

In the 1820s, intellectuals advocated for social ownership of property instead of private ownership, believing that common ownership would lead to human happiness. This idea contradicted conservatism, which supported the monarchy and upper class power in order to maintain the status quo. Additionally, an essay is required on the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. This movement emerged as a reaction against something and influenced literature, music, and art during this time period. To learn more about this topic, please see pages 672-675, 598, and 697. Overall, Romanticism was a movement that focused on aesthetic experiences and natural sciences in art, literature, and intellectual pursuits. It also supported free trade for the betterment of society.

Played a role in the growth of nationalism through the unification of common language, culture, history, etc. This movement was a reaction against the Industrial Revolution. Additionally, literature, music, and art placed emphasis on aesthetics and emotions, resulting in increased support for authors, artists, etc. In literature, overwhelming emotion and creative imagination were showcased as a response to the Enlightenment's excessive reliance on human reason. For example, paintings similarly idealized nature and depicted individuals with deep feelings, such as "The Nightmare" by Fuseli.

Now let's discuss socialism as a political ideology and its various forms in the mid-19th century - Marxist, Utopian, and Democratic. It is important to explore how socialism differed from liberalism as a political philosophy. Marxism believed that human existence was defined by the necessity to work in order to fulfill basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. It opposed both mutualism and anarchism.

The materialistic aspect of society, which is centered on work and production, is responsible for the fundamental structure of society. This structure is based on class relationships, with a strong emphasis on the unequal relations resulting from the control of the means of production by a few individuals who have deprived workers of their access to resources such as capital, land, tools, and factories necessary for fulfilling their basic needs. Consequently, society is viewed as being in a constant state of conflict and struggle.

Proletariat refers to the working class. It is believed by Karl Marx that the fall of the state would come from an uprising of the proletariat, as he saw capitalists as the highest class. Utopian Socialism is a play on Thomas Moore's Utopia and refers to the idea of an ideal society. However, it was recognized that these ideas were not practical. The individuals who questioned the structures of capitalism were called socialists. In ideal communities, women are treated as equals. Socialists believe that society should be managed as a community rather than people striving for profit. Democratic Socialists believe in running both the economy and society democratically to meet public needs rather than making profits for a few. They advocate for radical transformations in government and economy to achieve a more just society where ordinary Americans can participate in decision-making processes.

7. Karl Marx developed Scientific Socialism which forms the basis of his theory of Communism. Unlike the earlier Utopian Socialists and Democratic socialists like Louis Blanc, Marx differed in his approach. Some chief tenets of Marxian Socialism include his belief in the class struggle, the concept of historical materialism, and the inevitability of a proletarian revolution leading to a communist society. Marx claimed that his socialism was based on science because it relied on historical analysis and dialectical materialism rather than subjective ideals or moral principles.

Karl Marx's ideology is known as Marxism.

German, the son of a lawyer in the Rhineland and of Jewish descent, grew up in an industrialized area that encouraged exposure to political ideas. He was greatly influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution and began his career as a radical journalist. However, due to political reasons, he was eventually exiled from the Rhineland and settled in London in 1849. During his time there, he devoted much of his time to writing in the British library. His writings had a scientific basis rather than being utopian in nature. He also worked as a writer for the New York Daily Tribune. However, it was his friendship with Frederich Engles that saved him from living a life of poverty. Together, they wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848, which was intended for the communist league consisting of exiled Germans. The Communist Manifesto advocated for violent reform as a means to achieve communism.

Socialism, specifically nonviolent reform, is a belief system that advocates for the abolition of capitalization and the disappearance of the state. One of its key influences is Marxism, which is in debt to Hegelian philosophy. Marx adopts Hegel's concept of human history having a goal, namely the realization of the world spirit. It is important to note that Marx himself was an atheist.

A central methodology adopted by Marx is the dialectic method, which involves stating a proposition and its opposite to generate a clash that leads to the emergence of a "higher truth." Marx appropriates this method and applies it to his ideology, known as Dialectic Materialism. In his analysis, Marx identifies class struggle as a significant factor, particularly between capitalists and proletarians.

Before reaching socialism, it was necessary to go through capitalism. This can be understood with materialist philosophy.

In France, the Revolution of 1848 occurred and it is important to analyze its causes and outcome. This Revolution went through various phases and there are significant lessons that can be drawn from it. However, during this time, living in Paris was not ideal.

During the period of repeated crop failure and the potato famine in Ireland, approximately half of the population was left unemployed. At this time, bread was priced at 1 frank, equivalent to the average salary, which posed a challenge for individuals to afford it. In 1847, the government imposed a ban on liberal gatherings; however, they managed to circumvent this restriction by organizing banquets commemorating George Washington's birthday. In February 1848, troops were dispatched by the government to suppress these banquets and forcefully targeted attendees with gunfire. The news of this event quickly spread, resulting in the National Guard aligning themselves with the people's cause. Consequently, Louis Philippe resigned from his position and fled to London for safety. While their specific ideas varied beyond this objective, suffrage expansion remained a central aspiration among the populace.

In the formation of the Second Republic, a decision was made to establish a republican government. As part of this process, Louis Blanc was invited to join the provisional government. One of their initiatives was the establishment of National Workshops, which offered government subsidized jobs. Additionally, slavery was abolished in the colonies and imprisonment for debt was implemented. The death penalty for political crimes was also abolished at this time. To regulate working conditions, workdays were limited to 10 hours in Paris and 11 hours in the rest of France starting from April 1848. This period also saw the first universal man election taking place. However, the National Workshops were disbanded in May, leading to a second revolution in June 1848. During this second revolution, the working class was overruled by liberals. There was then a need for an executive figure to lead the country. Louis Napoleon emerged as a populist leader who appealed to a large cross-section of people. He utilized the state to provide employment opportunities and was subsequently elected for a four-year term as the executive leader. As part of his administration, Louis Napoleon dissolved the National Assembly.

The spread of revolution in Europe during 1848-1849 is examined, with a focus on its impact on the Austrian Empire, Prussia, the German Confederation, and the Italian states. The reasons for the failure of these revolutions are discussed.

1847- the government banned liberals from gathering and instead held banquets to celebrate George Washington's birthday. In February 1848, the government sent troops who shot the protestors. The news spread quickly, and the National guard joined the people's side. As a result, Louis Philippe resigned and escaped to London.

The decision was made to establish a second republic with a republican government. In Venice, an uprising occurred and the Austrians were expelled. The peasants expressed their desires for more land, better wages, and relief from unemployment. However, divisions between social classes hindered unity. In Prussia, deceased bodies were paraded beneath the window of the Prussian King in wagons, forcing him to salute. Consequently, the King of Prussia called for an assembly to create a constitution and adopted the German nationalist flag. The Austrians demanded political autonomy for Hungary.

Despite Ferdinand's promises of a constitution, parliament, and an end to censorship, they all failed due to conflicts between different ideological movements. This provided an opportunity for rulers and their armies to regain power. However, these rulers had high expectations for political participation, national unification, and government responsiveness to social issues.

The Crimean War (1853-1856) had significant implications for international relations. Unlike previous conflicts, the war saw advancements in technology and weaponry. In 1854, the decaying Ottoman Empire controlled the Bosporus Straits and the Strait of the Dardanelles that connect the Black Sea to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Russia sought to increase its influence in this region.

In 1853, St. Petersburg demanded the Ottoman Empire to acknowledge Russia's right to protect Eastern Orthodox believers in Turkey. When Turkey refused, Russia sent troops into Ottoman territory. Great Britain and France declared war on Russia on March 28, 1854 out of concern for potential Russian power increase and disruption to Europe's balance of power. In September 1854, the British and French began a siege on Sevastopol, which was Russia's heavily fortified main naval base located on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. After nearly a year of intense fighting, the Russians abandoned the fortress by destroying their fortifications and sinking their own ships. Meanwhile, at nearby Balaklava, British soldiers bravely charged through a narrow valley with Russian guns on both sides resulting in significant casualties later known as the Valley of Death (Light Brigade). In 1856, Alexander II became Russia's new tsar and pursued peace through negotiations.

In the resulting Peace of Paris, Russia relinquished its role as the Christian protector in Turkey, established neutrality in the Black Sea, and upheld the balance of power.

The essay question revolves around discussing the process of Italian unification during the 19th century. It aims to explain how Italy transformed from a collection of independent states into a unified country. This movement, known as the Risorgimento (meaning "resurgence"), was spearheaded by Giuseppe Mazzini and his student Giuseppe Garibaldi. These young Italian democrats sought to leverage the 1848 revolutions for a democratic uprising but were thwarted by conservative forces resurging across Europe. However, it was Camillo di Cavour, an aristocratic politician, who ultimately achieved Italian unification under the crown of Sardinia through realpolitik. Realpolitik is centered on politics being grounded in a realistic assessment of power and driven by self-interest among individual nation-states; often employing ruthless and violent methods.

In 1855, as prime minister of Sardinia, Cavour involved the kingdom on the British and French side of the Crimean War, using the peace conference to give international publicity to the cause of Italian unification. In 1858, he formed an alliance with France, one that included a pledge of military support if necessary, against Austria, Italy's major obstacle to unification. Austria declared war against Sardinia in 1859 and was easily defeated by the French army. The peace, signed in November 1959 in Zurich, Switzerland, joined Lombardy, a formerly Austrian province, with Sardinia. In return, France received Savoy and Nice from Italy central Italian provinces of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna voted in favor of unification with Sardinia in the summer of 1859.

In 1860, Garibaldi came out of his self-imposed exile to lead a latter day Red Shirt army, known as the Thousand, in southern Italy. By the end of the year, Garibaldi had liberated Sicily and Naples, which together made up the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Cavour, however, worried that Garibaldi, a democrat, was replacing Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy, as the unifier of Italy. Cavour ordered Sardinian troops into the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. After securing important victories in these regions, Cavour organized plebiscites, or popular votes, to annex Naples to Sardinia. Garibaldi yielded his territories to Cavour in the name of Italian unification.

In the 19th century, Italy became a united nation-state under King Victor Immanuel II of Sardinia. In a similar vein, the essay prompt asks to write about the movement for German unification and the roles played by Prussia and Austria in this struggle. It also inquires about how Bismarck achieved German unification. Bismarck, a Junker from Prussia, used "blood and iron" and a keen understanding of realpolitik to push for German unification. Prussia and Austria competed for dominance over small principalities that desired to maintain their independence and unique characteristics. Prussia controlled land from Lithuania to central Germany, as well as the German lands around the Rhine River. Bismarck needed to incorporate the small provinces between Denmark and Switzerland under the Prussian crown to establish a viable German Empire. In 1862, Bismarck reorganized and improved the Prussian army in preparation for war. In 1864, he formed an alliance with Austria to fight Denmark over Schleiswig and Holstein. Prussia gained control of Schleiswig while Austria administered Holstein. However, this situation could not last long as Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian territory.

Bismarck initiated a conflict with Austria due to an unrelated border dispute. The resulting Seven Weeks' War, as it came to be known for its short duration, saw Prussia decisively defeat the crumbling Austrian army. As part of the peace agreement, Holstein was ceded to Prussia and Austria was obliged to withdraw from all German affairs. However, Bismarck still faced opposition from the southern provinces, which harbored doubts about Prussia's commitment to a unified Germany encompassing all provinces. The religious and anti-war sentiments prevalent in these Catholic-dominated regions exacerbated the divide between the north and south. In 1870, Bismarck fabricated a letter purportedly insulting the Prussian king from the French ambassador. He strategically leaked this forged document to both the French and Prussian populations, fueling nationalistic fervor and spurring support for war. Consequently, France declared war on Prussia in July 1870. The ensuing conflict, fought primarily in Alsace-Lorraine, ended in a swift victory for Prussia as the ill-prepared French forces succumbed.

The Prussians swiftly mobilized and invaded France, resulting in a disastrous outcome for France and Napoleon's downfall. In 1870, the Prussian ruler William was proclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, and Alsace-Lorraine was handed over to Germany in the peace agreement. This transfer enabled Prussia to establish the German Empire, also known as the Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.

11. The causes of the Second European Industrial Revolution and its consequences on European society from 1850 to 1914, also known as the "Age of Steel", can be explained as follows: The production of steel and aluminum in large quantities through mass production methods led to the replacement of the steam engine. This resulted in cheaper methods for producing steel, leading to a 50% decrease in its price and increased usage in manufacturing. The expansion of the railway system was made possible by the increased availability of steel. Additionally, the discovery of significant amounts of gold in California and Australia expanded the supply of money and credit, leading to a 260% increase in world trade. Furthermore, electricity began to be used more extensively during this period. The invention of dynamite by Alfred Nobel facilitated the blasting through mountains, contributing to the growth of railways and ocean systems. In 1869, the French built the Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea, which significantly reduced shipping and transportation costs. The clipper ship's ability to cross from Europe to the US in just 14 days and carry triple the amount of cargo further aided trade. Advances in refrigeration, such as the invention of mechanical ice making machines, stimulated trade by making more goods available for exchange. Lastly, the telegraph played a crucial role during this time, with approximately 80,000 miles of telegraph wires established throughout Europe by 1864.

1865 - Transoceanic cables enabled communication between the United States and Europe. In 1875, Alexander Bell invented the telephone, followed by the installation of the first phones in France in 1879. These technological advancements brought about improvements in the lives of both the working class and the bourgeoisie.

European society in the 19th century was named the Bourgeois Century due to the rise of the prosperous middle class, which was a result of commercial and industrial capitalists' success in the 18th century. Within this society, there were various classes with deviations within each respective class. Each class held different attitudes and lifestyles.

Aristocracy comprises less than 1% of the population. There are distinctions between the upper class (or middle class) and the old nobility, with intermarriage common. Many diplomats come from aristocratic backgrounds. The middle class has expanded, consisting of individuals who are not part of the nobility, working class, or upper class. There are three levels within the middle class: upper, middle, and lower. The upper middle class tends to maintain the traditions of the old nobility. The middle class includes moderately successful industrialists and professionals. The lower middle class consists of storekeepers, servants, and clerks. They started occupying more positions as they developed and there was expansion in government jobs and professions such as lawyers and doctors. The majority of houses had common amenities like running water, upholstered furniture, healthy diets, separate sleeping quarters, and servants. Most families prioritized personal gain and safety, understanding that individual success contributed to the overall success of society. As the perspectives and industries of white-collar workers evolved, so did their lifestyles. Leisure activities became an integral part of bourgeois life, with indulgences like spas, vacations, hotels, and restaurants. By 1870, people had savings accounts, work days were reduced, and there was emphasis on efficiency while frowning upon heavy drinking. The working class had two great passions: sports and music halls.

13. Evaluate the transformation of women's circumstances during the 19th century, considering aspects such as their social class, limitations imposed by society, employment trends, and available opportunities. Additionally, examine the Feminist movement in the 19th century. What were the objectives of the different Feminist movements? What progress did they make through their fight? Women in the early 19th century were primarily confined to their households.

A sign of poverty for women in the past was having a job, which was very uncommon. They were expected to get married at a young age and were not encouraged to continue their education or voice their opinions. Women's lives were seen as private while men's lives were public.

In 1885, the University of Zurich became the first college to allow women to attend, while all other universities prohibited them from doing so. This was a turning point for women as they began to realize the oppression placed upon them.

As a result, they fought for social, political, and even economic equality. It wasn't until the early 20th century that women finally gained suffrage.

In addition to discussing the evolution of various Socialist political parties in Europe during the second half of the 19th century, please analyze the reasons why some Marxian Socialists deviated from Marxism and embraced a new revisionist approach. Consider the impact of trade unionism, labor movements, and greater political democratization on these socialist movements. Refer to your textbook pages: 785, 786, and 810.

In the 19th century, the roots of anti-Semitism in Europe were examined. The causes of anti-Semitic thinking and the Dreyfus Affair were analyzed as well. The Dreyfus Affair is considered one of the most significant demonstrations of anti-Semitism in late 19th century Europe. For more information, refer to Chapter 24 of your Textbook.

In the late 19th century, New Imperialism emerged as a result of various factors including the origins, direction, and motivation. To gain insight into this topic, Headrick's book Tools of Empire provides valuable information. New Imperialism was primarily characterized by a scramble for possessions in Asia and Africa.

In the 1830s, the French invaded Algeria due to an insult to their rulers. By the 1840s, around 70,000 European colonists had settled in Algeria and it became part of France in 1848. In 1819, the British gained control of Singapore and by 1840, they also gained control of New Zealand. They began extending their control over India, although they did not directly try to control it themselves. The British East India Company was responsible for imperialism in India and they created a British India elite to govern the country. The British also traded opium and attempted to sell it in China, but the Chinese King Dynasty banned opium and restricted traders from entering Canton, which actually resulted in higher prices for opium. In 1842, the British defeated China and forced them to open four more Chinese ports through the "Treaty of Nanjing". In the 1880s, there was a new era of expansion for Europeans as many Europeans moved to America and Australia. The motivation for this expansion was mainly economic and social. Colonies offered relief from economic anxiety by producing more products and colonies also allowed for social and economic issues to be filtered out by sending problem people there. There was also a sense of mission among Europeans to help Africans and Asians, driven by Social Darwinist beliefs that the white race had a duty to lead "primitives" to civilization. As for the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), it had several causes and outcomes. Its impact on relations among the Great Powers, specifically Austria and Russia, was significant but unspecified in this text.

During the Belle-Époque (1870-1914), various trends emerged in European thought. Notably, science, literature, and philosophy experienced significant developments. These advancements were influenced by technological change. Consequently, some individuals embraced positivism, while others grew more uncertain and anxious about the future. This paradox of increasing optimism and increasing anxiety can be further explored by referring to both the textbook and lecture notes.

19. The development of Realism and Naturalism in the literature and art of the late 19th century can be explained by understanding how this movement came about and what it was reacting against. Unlike the earlier Romantic movement, Realism and Naturalism had a more pessimistic outlook. In order to compare and contrast Realism and Naturalism with Romanticism, we need to examine the tenets of each movement and how they were similar or different from one another. Realism, for example, portrayed hypocrisy and the dullness that exists in society.

Example- Flaubert wrote Madame Bovary—portrays a dull existence in France as individuals pursue love. Materialism and determinism are depicted as being akin to animals driven by passion. The public faces the harsh reality but finds no resolution.

20. In this essay, analyze the Bismarckian Alliance system in Europe (1870-1910), including its foundation, origins, flaws, dissolution after Bismarck's removal as Chancellor, and the subsequent system that took its place.

The text contains two main points. First, it is asking for a discussion on the origins and causes of the First World War, specifically focusing on the political, social, and ideological reasons for the war. Second, it mentions the percentages of arms expenditures for France, Russia, and Germany: 80% for the former two and 120% for the latter.

Everyone contributed money to the military and believed that the next war would be short. However, there was not enough fear of war to create a prevention plan. The war was sparked in the Balkins and involved two major powers. Serbian terrorists, known as the Blackhands, assassinated the Archduke and wife of Austria, which led to blaming Serbia for the assassination. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia, but it was not accepted. As a result, Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28. Russia came to the aid of Serbia and declared war on Austria. Germany, fearing the destruction of Austria, declared war on Russia, which they knew would also lead to a war with France. Germany did not want a two front war, but they believed that war was inevitable. To ensure victory, Germany devised the Schlieffen plan which required knocking France out of the war before Russian mobilization. In order to attack France, Germany had to march through neutral Belgium as an unexpected route with hopes of trapping France. However, this decision sparked a war with Britain.

Now all the Great Powers are at war. World War I was a significant calamity and catalyst for change in Europe. This conflict led to various changes in society. Answer these questions in a well-organized essay: Why was World War I a great calamity? Why was it also a great catalyst for change in Europe? What changes came about as a result of this conflict? War will destroy the old aristocracy.

The territories underwent significant changes that shattered the optimism in European values, including notions of reason and superiority. The casualties of World War I were staggering, with approximately 10-13 million soldiers killed, 20 million wounded soldiers, and 7-10 million civilian deaths. The already massive death toll was further escalated by the 1918 influenza outbreak. This war was not confined to the military but involved the entire society, as immediate conscription took place and women replaced men in factories, granting them independence to have their own residences, go out alone, and engage in activities like smoking and drinking.

The Communist Revolution in Russia was an additional factor that contributed to the collapse of the European Colonial Empire, eventually leading to an even more destructive war twenty years later. Although the Schlieffen plan almost succeeded, the German forces were halted by the French in their attempt to encircle Paris. The Battle of Marne that took place between September and November 1914 saw both sides striving to outflank each other in a battle where filthy trenches played a pivotal role.

Artillery emerged as the deadliest weapon during WWI, bearing striking resemblance to modern artillery. Additionally, various other tactics and weapons became staples of this war, including barbed wire surrounding trenches, poison gas/chemical weapons, minefields, machine guns, and even flamethrowers. Verdun, for instance, found itself surrounded on three sides by German forces and despite desperate attempts at an offensive, the French suffered immense casualties during the Battle of Verdun that lasted from February to December 1916. The area witnessed the firing of one million shells within a 19-mile stretch by the German forces, resulting in the deaths of nearly 996,000 individuals.

Battle of Somme, the British suffered their worst day on the first day of the battle. They lost 60% of their officers and 40% of their rank. However, they managed to gain 7 miles in this battle. The survivors from this battle became known as the Lost Generation, and their lives were never the same again.

Patriotism, progress, and order were openly mocked as the Russians mobilized quicker than the Germans had expected. By 1917, Germany had occupied a large portion

Updated: Feb 16, 2024
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The Congress of Vienna and the Emergence of Liberalism essay
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