Biodiverse Region with Varied Plant and Rock Resources

This region supports a large number of biodiversity elements including edibles, fodder, fuel, medicinal, religious and threatened plants. Rocks: The various rock types found in theregion could be classifiedin the following three types: Sedimentary rocks: These rocks derived from the consolidation of sediments. These sediments are the resultants of mechanical and chemical erosion from some pre-existing rock masses. Metasedimentary rocks: These rocks are shaped when sedimentary rocks get metamorphosed. Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed from the solidification of very hot molten rock material called 'magma'.

These types of rocks generally derive at depth, but sometimes these are formed on the crust of the earth. Based on the percentage of silica, igneous rocks are categorizedinto ultrabasic (65%). Soil The soil in the study area has diverse nature and shows close relationship with vegetation pattern, which influences the pedogenic processes. It is either micaceous, sandy or red clayey depending on the rock type from which it has been derived. The granite, phyllites, schist have given rise to micaceous soils.

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The arenaceous, i.e. sandy soil is distinguishing feature of sandstone or quartzite. At the riverbeds some terraces have sandy soil. Terrace deposits are well developed in the banks of River Kosi, west of Khairna to the west of Betalghat.There are four major soil groups (Brown forest soil, red loam soil, podsols and transitional podsols and wisenboden) found in the sub-Himalayan region of Kumaun Himalaya.

The Moisture content ranged between 2.46 to 15.21%. The climaticcondition of the study area is typically sub-tropical and temperate types, and consists of usuallythreewell defined seasons (i) the cold season(mid October to mid March), (ii)the hot season (April to June), and (iii) the rainy season (July to September).

The temperature of the area ranged from 1.8oC to 25.5oC during the study period.The annual rainfall ranged between 8mm. - 448mm. in 2016, 2017 and 2018 (Fig. 1b). The average maximum temperature was recorded in monsoon 25.5°C (May 2018) and minimum in winter 1.8°C (December 2018). Average maximum rainfall recorded in monsoon 448 mm. (July 2018) and minimum in autumn. The available information on meteorology of the study area is presented in Fig. 3.1 (a-c). Champion and Seth (1968) classified Indian forest into 16 groups, out of which six groups of forest are represented by Uttarakhand (Joshi et. al., 2006).

The vegetation of the study area is briefly discussed below: Chir-pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests: The Chir-pine forest is generally confined between 700-1800 m and sometimes extends above and below these altitudes. It extends lower on northern aspects and higher on southern aspects. Chir-pine is specially adapted to withstand fires by means of its thick bark, its coppicing power while young and its rapid growth when established. Similarly common shrub found in the chir-pine forest is practically adapted to resist fire.

Some of the treespecies growing in association of Chir-pine forest are: Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude, Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Ougeiniaoojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr., Rhododendron arboreum Sm, Rhus wallichii Hook. f., Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq. etc. Shrubby undergrowth consists of Aechymanthera gossypina (Nees) Nees, Desmodium multiflorus DC., Euphorbia royleana Boiss., Glochiodion velutinum Wight, Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC., Rhus parviflora Roxb. ex DC. and Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz are often abundant in such forests. The ground flora consists of Anaphalis busua (D. Don) DC., Apluda mutica L., Arundinella nepalensis Trin., Cassia mimosoides L., Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin., Conyza stricta Willd., Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk., Cyperus niveus Retz., Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Euphorbia helioscopia L., Habenaria marginata Colebr., Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br., Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv, Leucas lanata Benth., Marsicus paniceus (Rottb.) Vahl, Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.) Benth., Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan.,Origanum vulgare L., Pecteilis gigantea (J.E. Smith), Roscoea purpurea J.E. Sm, Salvia lanata Roxb., Satyrium nepalense D.Don,Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack., Tragopogon gracilis D.Don, etc. Banj-oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) forest: Banj-oak forests usually occur between 1100 to 1800m altitudes, but run as low elevation as 1100 m altitude particularly in moist-shady ravines. The important featureof this species is theability to establish itself on the unfavourable aspects. On the north aspects these forests are open, dense and the ground is almost covered with grasses. Another feature Banj-oak has considerable fire-resistant qualities and most important of which is its power of reproduction through coppicing shoots. Some common associates trees of banj-oak are: Acer oblongumWall., Cedrus doedara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Daphniphyllum himalayense (Benth.) M?ll. Arg., Fraxinus micrantha L., Ilex dipyrena Wall., Lyonia ovalifolia, Wall.ex Drude, Neolitsea pallens (D. Don) Momiy. & Hara.,Persea duthiei (King exHook. f.) Kost., Pinus roxburghii Sarg., Rhododendron arboreum Sm, Rhus wallichii Hook. f., Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth.ex Hook. f. etc. Shrubby undergrowth consists of Beberis asiatica (Roxb.) DC., B. chitria Lindl., Coriaria nepalensis Wall., Caryopteris foetida (D. Don) Thellung, Daphne cannabina Wall., Desmodium elegans DC., Eurya acuminata DC., Goldfussia dalhousiana Nees, Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC., Myrsine africana L., Pteracanthus alatus (Clarke) Bremekamp, Rubus paniculatus Sm., Sarcococca saligna (D. Don) Muell.-Arg., Rabdosia coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don), and Wikstroemia canescens Meisn. etc. The ground flora consists of Achyranthes bidentata Blume., Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., Ainsliaea aptera DC., A.latifolia (D.Don) Sch.-Bip., Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham.ex DC., Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene, Boennighausenia albiflora (HK) Reichb.ex Meissn., Carex cruciata Wahl., Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr., Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex J.E. Sm., Craniotome furcata (Link.) O. Ktze., Malaxis acuminata D. Don, Pilea scripta (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don), Pimpinella diversifolia DC., Roscoea purpurea J.E. Sm, Synotis rufinervis (DC.) C. Jeffrey & Y.L. Chen, Stellaria monosperma Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Thalictrum foliolosum DC., Valeriana wallichii DC.etc. The common climbers met, in the forest are Clematis spp, Hedera nepalensis K. Koch, Marsdenia lucida Edgew. ex Madden, Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch, Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch.etc. Chir-pine (Pinus roxburghii Sargent) and Banj-oak(Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) mixedforest: These forests are usually confined to between 1600-1800 m altitudes and exhibit a more or less equal dominance of Chir-pineand Banj-oak.