Selenium and Uranium - Drinking Water

Selenium containing drinking water may result in losing of hair, weakened nails and skin lesions and more seriously changes in peripheral nerves and lower prothrombin time. On the other hand, Uranium causes serious issue on kidney in the long term exposure which increases calcium excretion and protein leakage from the kidney such as microglobulinuria.

Endocrine disrupters

Disrupters are chemicals that interfere with endocrine system. They are responsible for having damaging effects on the reproductive health by declining sperm count, hypospadias and cryptorchidism and cancer of breast and testes.

Some chemicals include Phthalates, bisphenols, alkyl phenols, polyethoxylates, pesticides etc. (Fawell, 2003)

Microbial contamination

Pathogens are causing fatal waterborne diseases and micro fungal contamination of water is weakening our basic immune system and paralyzing antibodies to fight against the microbes. The diarrhea caused by pathogens is the most significant health issue and it occurs due feces containing pathogenic organisms, especially human feces. In nineteenth century, there was a prevalence of cholera and typhoid that had massive impact on the cities in Europe and North America.

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Hence, it is necessary to treat drinking water to break the cycle of fecal-oral transmission. Moreover, hand washing and other hygiene practices can help to minimize the spreading of infections. (Fawell, 2003)

Table 6: The primary bacterial diseases transmitted through drinking water

Disease Causal bacterial agent

• Cholera Vibrio cholerae, serovarieties O1, and O139
• Gastroenteritis caused by vibrios Mainly Vibrio parahaemolyticus
• Typhoid fever and other severe salmonellosis Salmonella entericasubsp, Entericaserovar, Paratyphi Salmonella entericasubsp, entericaserovar, Typhi Salmonella entericasubsp. entericaserovarTyphimurium
• Bacillary dysentery or shigellosis Shigelladysenteriae, Shigellaflexneri Shigellaboydii,
• Acute diarrheas and gastroenteritis E.
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  coli, particularly serotypes such as O148, O157, and O124

Source: Cabral, 2010

Ways for protecting water from getting contaminated:

•  E.coli bacteria are an effective pathogenic indicator of groundwater contamination which helps identify the contaminated water and take the steps needed.
•  It is crucial put emphasis on the water that is being supplied and stored, to avoid further decline of water before consumption and we should be conscious about anything that has to do with the water resources as well. We should be careful not to throw any kind of waste material into the water and have a separate sanitary sewer system. Furthermore, we have to minimize the use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and not dispose of motor oil, or other automotive fluids into the sanitary sewer or storm sewer systems as both lead to the river.
•  After consuming any kind of solid or liquid medicines, wrapping it up with dry wastes is important to avoid mixing it with the water flow and also avoid exposing any kind of heavy metals or carcinogenic substances. And before drinking water we should boil it properly and also gather proper knowledge about the usage of water in our daily activities. (Lautenberg, 2016).

Heavy Metals in Water

Heavy metals have different chemical properties and are used extensively in electronics, machines, which results in them entering into the aquatic and food chains from various anthropogenic sources. Many aquatic environments face metal concentrations that exceed water quality criteria designed to protect the environment, animals and humans. The heavy metals are one of the most common pollutants found in wastewater and have toxic effect human beings and animals, even at low concentrations.

• Arsenic Toxic to humans, aquatic fauna and livestock
• High doses cause metabolic poison
• Tiredness, irritability anemia and behavioral changes of children
• Hypertension and brain damage
• Phytotoxic
• High conc. can cause DNA damage
• Eczema of hands High phytotoxicity
• Damaging fauna
• Necrosis nephritis and death in man (10 mg kg1 of body weight as hexavalent chromium)
• Irritation of gastrointestinal mucosa
• Causes damage in a variety of aquatic fauna
• Phytotoxic
• Mucosal irritation and corrosion
• Central nervous system irritation followed by depression
• Anemia
• Lack of muscular coordination
• Abdominal pain etc
• Phytotoxic
• Cause serious damage to kidneys and bones in humans
• Bronchitis, emphysema, anemia
• Acute e?ects in children
• Poisonous
• Causes mutagenic effects
• Disturbs the cholesterol
• Causes toxicological and carcinogenic e?ects
• Causes melanosis, keratosis and hyperpigmentation in humans
• Genotoxicity through generation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation
• Immunotoxic
• Modulation of co-receptor expression · By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 0.1 mg/ L
• By European Community: 0.5 mg/ L
• Regulation of water quality (India) 0.1 mg /L By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 0.1 mg/ L
• By European Community: 0.1 mg/ L
• Regulation of water quality (India) 0.1 mg /L
• By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: (hexavalent and trivalent)0.1 mg/ L
• By European Community: 0.5 mg/ L
• Regulation of water quality (India) 0.1 mg /L
• By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 1.0 mg/ L
• By European Community: 3 mg/ L
• Regulation of water quality (India) 0.01 mg /L
• By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 5 mg/ L
• By European Community: 5 mg/ L
• By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 0.005 mg/ L'
• By European Community: 0.02 mg/ L
• Regulation of water quality (India) 0.001 mg /L
• By the Environmental Protection Agency maximum concentration: 0.002 mg/ L
• By European Community: 0.001 mg/ L
• WHO guideline of 10 mg/L
• By European Community: 0.01 mg /L
• Regulation of water quality (India): 0.05 mg/ L

Water Monitoring

Water quality monitoring systems are used in modern technologies as contamination in supplied water is a major problem and it occurs due to the viral and bacterial attack. In addition, water should be stored safely and regular authorization is necessary. Thus, by following good sanitation and hygiene, it is possible to prevent a plethora of waterborne. (Bain, 2012)

Detection of Microbes

A device called the Biosynthetic Nose is used to detect microorganisms in water as it resembles human nose and can detect the Earthy and musty odor produced by bacteria. The bad odor is due to two different odorous molecules geosmin (GSM) and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) and they can be detected by Biosynthetic Nose device at very low concentrations of about 10 mg per liter water.

Standard Water Quality Guidelines

The setting of guidelines is a key normative function of the World Health Organization. The WHO guidelines are made to protect public health and are to be used as the base for the development of national standards. This approach is preferred because it promotes the adoption of standards that can be readily implemented using available resources. Within the area of water, microbiology and guideline setting the three related areas, they are:

1. drinking water
2. wastewater reuse
3. recreational water

Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (GDWQ)

The WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (GDWQ) was the first environmental health document published in 1958 as International Standards for Drinking-Water. In the mid-1980sthe the first edition of the WHO guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality was published in three volumes:

Volume 1: Recommendations

• Volume 2: Health criteria and other supporting information
• Volume 3: Surveillance and control of community water supplies

The GDWQ cover chemical, physical and microbiological aspects of water quality, microbiological contamination being most important which cannot be compromised. Chemical, physical and radiological contaminants are broadly covered by critical review and risk assessments published by international bodies such as the International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS), the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) and Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Food Additives (JECFA). For most chemicals, the risk assessment results in the derivation of a dose below which adverse effects do not occur and is the basis for a Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI), which can be used as a guideline value for a maximum allowable concentration in drinking water.

The tolerable daily intake (TDI) should be derived as follows, using the most sensitive end-point in the most relevant study, preferably involving administration in drinking-water:

Where: TDI = (NOAEL or LOAEL)/ UF

NOAEL = no-observed-adverse-effect level, LOAEL = lowest-observed-adverse-effect level & UF = uncertainty factor

The guideline value (GV) is then derived from the TDI as follows:

Where: GV = (TDI x bw x P)/ C

bw = bodyweight  P = fraction of the TDI allocated to drinking-water  C = daily drinking-water consumption

For genotoxic carcinogens, a threshold value does not exist and the guideline value is based on extrapolation and concentrations leading to an excess lifetime cancer risk of 105 are presented as guideline values. On the other hand, microbiological risks are treated very differently. (WHO, Guidelines, Standards, and Health: Assessment of risk and risk management for water-related infectious disease, 2001)

Source: (WHO, Guidelines, Standards, and Health: Assessment of risk and risk management for water-related infectious disease, 2001)

Water Consumption Guideline (Industrial area)

Chemicals from industrial sources can reach drinking-water directly from thrown wastes. Some of the inorganic substances may also be encountered due to natural contamination. Many of these chemicals are used in small industrial units within human settlements, and a number of chemicals can reach the water as a consequence of disposal of general household chemicals; in particular, a number of heavy metals. When latrines and septic tanks are poorly built, these can lead to contamination of drinking-water by nitrate. Identification of the potential for contamination by chemicals from industries and housing requires an assessment of the activities and the risk contaminants reaching water sources. (WHO, Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 2008)