Exploring Language and Communication in the Workplace

The study examines language and communication concerns in the present situation, with a particular focus on two groups: (1) currently employed EAL professionals and (2) managers of the companies that employ them. The investigation of language and communication issues is crucial for providing language educators, settlement services, employers, EAL immigrants, and policy makers with a comprehensive understanding of language requirements beyond mere proficiency levels. By exploring the viewpoints of employers and EAL employees regarding their experiences with workplace communication, we can improve our comprehension of these matters.

The objective of this study is to gather participants' retrospective thoughts and observations regarding their own professional experiences, whether as managers or employees. It seeks to expand upon previous research findings while also bringing up new questions. This study provides valuable insights, reveals inconsistencies, and highlights areas for additional research and policy reform. It focuses on the interview portion of a two-part project; the second part involves observing immigrant professionals in a work setting and is currently in progress.

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Employers of EAL immigrant professionals and tertiary-educated EAL employees were interviewed to explore their language and communication experiences in the workplace. These interviews provided an opportunity for reflection and allowed participants to share their own perspectives. Although the study size and interpretive approach limit the generalizability of the research findings, they offer valuable insights into previously identified but under-analyzed issues.

The existing pre-immigration testing system does not fully capture the range of language abilities needed in different workplace situations. For instance, engineers require a variety of English language skills beyond just test performance, such as communicating with construction workers on site, interacting with clients over the phone, and collaborating with colleagues during meetings.

Nevertheless, highly-qualified, experienced EAL immigrants may feel confident that once they meet the language test requirements, their English skills will be sufficient for their work. However, both employers and employees may face a drawback as it takes time for communicative language development. If new employees are required to work with customers and clients immediately, employers may find their communication skills lacking. Similarly, employees in a workplace with limited regular interpersonal contact, including informal conversations without job performance pressure, may face disadvantages in their language development.

In language and work orientation programs, the significance of asking questions and ensuring comprehension can be highlighted and examined in relation to different cultures. Employers can also utilize non-intimidating approaches to verify understanding and provide feedback. Additionally, it is crucial to note that miscommunication arises from various circumstances and is not solely due to English language abilities.

Both employers and employees have contrasting views on the significance of workplace interaction. Employees typically perceive their job as a collection of specific tasks they excel in. On the other hand, employers deem work-related interaction vital for overall productivity and fostering relationships. They critique EAL employees for their limited engagement in workplace communication.

The project has started to explore language and communication issues in the workplace, comparing them with the knowledge and experiences of employers and immigrant professionals who have English as an Additional Language (EAL).

Communication Accommodation Theory posits that individuals adapt their communication style to accommodate others.

The Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) is a sociolinguistic theory that explores the ways in which individuals modify their communication style to accommodate or adapt to others. Originally formulated by Howard Giles during the 1970s, this theory has undergone extensive examination and application within various disciplines including psychology, communication, and intercultural communication.

Communication accommodation theory (CAT), developed by Howard Giles, suggests that individuals modify their speech, vocal patterns, and gestures to accommodate others during interactions. CAT investigates the reasons behind emphasizing or minimizing social differences in verbal and nonverbal communication. This theory delves into the connection between language, context, and identity while considering intergroup and interpersonal factors that contribute to accommodation. Additionally, it explores how communication behaviors are influenced by power dynamics and contextual factors.

[2] The theory explains two primary accommodation processes. Convergence occurs when individuals adjust their communicative behaviors to reduce social differences with others.[3] On the other hand, divergence involves individuals emphasizing the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors.[3] Occasionally, those who try to converge may unintentionally over-accommodate. Despite their well-meaning intentions, this convergence can be seen as condescending.

Background

The concept of speech accommodation theory examines how individuals modify their speech patterns and language style to align with others during communication. It proposes that people frequently adjust their speech in order to establish rapport and improve mutual understanding.

The communication accommodation theory, which was developed by Howard Giles, a professor of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara, has evolved from the speech accommodation theory (SAT). The SAT can be traced back to Giles' accent mobility model of 1973. The main goal of the SAT is to demonstrate the significance of social psychological concepts in comprehending speech dynamics and elucidate the reasons behind alterations in speech styles during social interactions and their resulting social consequences.

The communication accommodation theory has expanded to encompass not only speech but also the "non-verbal and discursive dimensions of social interaction", focusing on the cognitive and affective processes underlying individuals' convergence and divergence through speech. It has taken a more interdisciplinary approach than the previous speech accommodation theory, covering a wider range of phenomena.

Social psychology and social identity theory

Communication accommodation theory, similar to speech accommodation theory, draws on social psychology and incorporates several key theories including similarity-attraction, social exchange, causal distribution, and intergroup distinctiveness. These theories provide insights into the reasons behind individuals' tendencies to adapt or differ in terms of language, dialect, accent, and behavior when communicating with others. Additionally, communication accommodation theory heavily relies on social identity theory which posits that an individual's self-concept consists of both personal and social identities. This social identity is shaped through comparisons between in-groups (groups individuals belong to) and out-groups (groups individuals do not belong to).

Social identity theory suggests that individuals try to maintain a positive social identity by either joining groups that make them feel more comfortable or by enhancing their sense of belonging to their existing groups. Speech is one way in which people express their group membership, and they do so by either converging or diverging in their communication styles. This serves to highlight the distinctiveness of their group and reinforce their social identity. Communication accommodation can therefore be seen as a means to positively emphasize group distinctiveness and strengthen an individual's social identity.

There are four main socio-psychologies, including similarity-attraction.

The similarity-attraction theory suggests that when our attitudes and beliefs align with those of others, they are more likely to be attracted to us. One way to increase this similarity and attract others is through verbal and non-verbal communication convergence. Hence, individuals may engage in convergence to gain social approval from their interlocutor.

According to Natalé (1975), individuals who have a strong desire for social approval tend to conform more in their speech patterns. Natalé found that those with high needs for approval are more likely to adjust their vocal intensity and pause length to match others compared to those with low needs for approval. Furthermore, receiving a high level of accommodation from others can boost an individual's self-esteem and satisfaction more than receiving low accommodation.

The social exchange process centers on interpersonal relationships and the interaction between individuals. It entails exchanging resources, such as time, energy, and emotions, among people. This process is marked by reciprocal dynamics, wherein individuals engage in mutual interactions and exchanges driven by their needs and motivations. The social exchange process is crucial in shaping and sustaining social connections and impacts different facets of social life, including friendships, romantic relationships, and work interactions.

According to the theory of social exchange process, individuals assess the pros and cons of various actions prior to making a choice. Typically, they opt for the action that provides greater benefits and fewer drawbacks. Although rewards are commonly linked with convergence, there are instances where it can lead to heightened exertion, compromised integrity, and the forfeiture of personal or group identity. Hence, individuals take into account these costs and rewards when determining whether to employ convergence.

The process of causal attribution

The theory of causal attribution proposes that we interpret and assess the behavior of others by attributing motivations and intentions as the cause of their actions. Our perception of convergence can be positive or negative, depending on the reasons we attribute to it. Interpersonal convergence is typically seen in a positive light, while non-convergence is viewed negatively. However, how true this perception is depends on how the listener attributes the speaker's intentions. Giles and Smith conducted an experiment with French and English speaking Canadians to illustrate this point.

When French Canadian listeners believed that an English Canadian was using language convergence to reduce cultural barriers, they viewed it favorably. However, when the same behavior was attributed to external pressures forcing convergence, positive feelings were not as strongly evoked.

The concept of intergroup distinctiveness refers to the perception that groups are different from each other.

Tajfel argues that individuals assess themselves using various important factors, such as personal attributes, abilities, material possessions, and more, when interacting with people from different groups. This concept is known as intergroup distinctiveness.

When individuals engage in intergroup social comparisons, their goal is to differentiate themselves from the out-group in order to enhance their social identity. One way they achieve this is by using different speech styles or languages, as these are clear indicators of distinct social groups. This divergence helps maintain the uniqueness between groups and makes assimilation more difficult, particularly when group membership is important or when an individual's sense of self and group affiliation are at risk.

The following are the assumptions:

Many of the principles and concepts from social identity theory are applicable to communication accommodation theory. Communication accommodation theory, guided by social psychology, especially social identity theory, is based on four main assumptions:

• There are speech and behavioral similarities and dissimilarities in all conversations.
• The way we perceive the speech and behaviors of another person determines our evaluation of the conversation.
• Language and behaviors can communicate social status and group belonging among individuals in a conversation.
• Norms govern the accommodation process, which varies in its appropriateness.

The text highlights two assumptions regarding communication. The first assumption states that individuals bring their prior experiences to conversations, and thus, communication is influenced not only by the present context and initial reactions but also by the "social-historical context" in which the interaction occurs. People's attitudes and beliefs, influenced by these factors, determine their willingness to accommodate in a conversation. The more similarities they share, the higher the likelihood of accommodation. The second assumption focuses on how people perceive and evaluate conversations. Perception involves attending to and interpreting a message, while evaluation involves judging a conversation. When someone enters a conversation, they typically observe what is happening and decide whether adjustments are necessary to fit in.

However, accommodation is not always required for making a decision about accommodation. Consider a scenario in which two strangers meet and engage in casual small talk before parting ways. In this situation, neither of them is likely to analyze the conversation since their chances of meeting again are slim. The significance of language and behavior is highlighted in the third assumption as they serve as cues for social status and group affiliation. When two individuals who speak different languages attempt to communicate, the language chosen is likely to be the one used by the person of higher social standing.

The idea of negotiating "salient social membership" is evident in interviews, where the interviewee typically modifies their speech and behavior to establish a connection with the interviewer and improve their chances of being hired. This assumption highlights the significance of adhering to societal norms and displaying appropriate conduct.

Norms refer to the "expectations of behaviors that individuals feel should or should not occur in a conversation." These expectations guide people's behaviors and aid them in determining how to appropriately adapt. Generally, adhering to these norms is considered socially acceptable. For instance, when a young individual communicates with older family members, it is important for them to refrain from using slang or jargon commonly used by their peers as a way to demonstrate respect and facilitate smoother communication.

Convergence, over-accommodation, and divergence.

Convergence

Convergence refers to the process in which individuals adjust their speech patterns to resemble those of their conversation partner(s). This can occur through various aspects of communication, such as language usage, pronunciation, pause length, vocal intensity, nonverbal behaviors, and self-disclosure levels (Giles and Smith, 1979, 46). However, convergence does not necessarily happen simultaneously at all these levels; individuals can simultaneously converge in some aspects while diverging in others. The decision to converge is influenced by individuals' perceptions of others and their ability to infer information about them and their backgrounds. Additionally, attraction (likability, charisma, credibility) also plays a role in triggering convergence. According to Turner and West, when individuals are attracted to others, they will converge in their conversations.

According to the similarity attraction theory, people who share similar beliefs, personalities, and behaviors are more likely to be attracted to each other. When an individual adjusts their speech and non-verbal behaviors to align with others, it can lead to a more positive evaluation of them. The convergence of behavior in a conversation is seen as a desire for social approval from the listener, and the need for social approval affects the likelihood of convergence.

In addition to attraction, there are various factors that influence the intensity of the need for approval and the level of convergence. These factors include the probability of future interactions, the social status of the addressee, and interpersonal variability for the need of social approval. Furthermore, individuals' relational history, social norms, and power variables also play a role in determining whether and to what extent they converge in interaction.

The likelihood that individuals will converge to the person with higher status means that their speech in a conversation will mirror that of the higher status individual. Convergence enhances communication effectiveness, leading to reduced uncertainty and interpersonal anxiety, while promoting mutual understanding. Therefore, convergence serves as a motivation for people to adopt a similar speech pattern.

Over accommodation

Despite good intentions, convergence in conversation can sometimes be perceived as patronizing and demeaning by some interlocutors. Therefore, while convergence can enhance conversation, it can also hinder communication. Over accommodation can manifest in three ways: sensory over accommodation, dependency over accommodation, and intergroup over accommodation. Sensory over accommodation occurs when an individual believes they are accommodating someone's linguistic or physical disability, but does so excessively, leading the other person to perceive their behavior as patronizing.

The concept of dependency over accommodation occurs when the speaker positions the listener as inferior, conveying that the listener relies on the speaker for communication and acknowledges the speaker as dominant. Intergroup over accommodation, on the other hand, entails treating individuals according to broad stereotypes rather than acknowledging their unique identities.

The cognitive linking of socially categorized stereotypes leads to the occurrence of over-accommodation. Over-accommodation occurs in various situations, such as when nurses or caretakers use baby talk when speaking to elderly patients. Although the nurses may have good intentions to show care and establish a connection, the patients often feel degraded and undervalued as a result. This type of over-accommodation can also hinder patients' ability to adapt to their surroundings and contribute to a dysfunctional environment within an institution.

"divergence" refers to the process of things moving in different directions or becoming different from each other.

Divergence refers to a linguistic tactic where a person in a speech community deliberately highlights the linguistic disparities between themselves and the person they are speaking with. Typically, this approach aims to emphasize the uniqueness of their group in a positive way and often occurs when an individual views the interaction as an intergroup process rather than an individual one.

"Divergence, which involves displaying distinctiveness from others, is an important tactic for individuals to communicate their valued identity. This helps to maintain a positive image of their own group and strengthens their social identity. Divergence allows individuals from different groups to preserve their cultural identity, contrast self-images when interacting with undesirable groups, and signal power or status differences, particularly when one person aims to reduce the power of another."

Components of CAT

In 1995, Gallois et al. conducted additional research that expanded the theory of Communication Accommodation Theory. This research identified 17 propositions that impact the processes of convergence and divergence. The propositions are grouped into four main components: the sociohistorical context, the communicators’ accommodative orientation, the immediate situation, and evaluation and future intentions. These components play a crucial role in the theory and influence the nature and outcome of intercultural conversations.

The sociohistorical context

The sociohistorical context is the influence of past interactions between the communicators' groups on their communication behaviors. It includes the relations between the groups and the social norms related to their contact. These relations influence the communicators' behavior. Various socio-historical factors that affect communicators include political or historical relations between nations, differing religious or ideological views, and more.

Accommodative orientation

The accommodative orientation encompasses the communicator's inclination to perceive interpersonal encounters with group members, intergroup encounters, or a combination of both. There are three significant factors that contribute to accommodative orientations. These factors include "intrapersonal factors" such as the personality of the speakers, "intergroup factors" such as the communicators' attitudes toward out-groups, and "initial orientations" which involve the perceived potential for conflict.

The last factor that influences these issues includes elements such as: whether the culture is collectivistic or individualistic; the distressing history of interaction between groups; possible tensions resulting from past interactions; stereotypes; norms for treatment of groups; and high group solidarity/high group dependence, which refers to the extent to which a person's self-worth is dependent on the group.

Immediate situation

The immediate situation is the moment when the actual communication occurs. It is influenced by five interconnected aspects: (1) "sociopsychological states", (2) "goals and addressee focus" (such as motivations and goals for the encounter), (3) "sociolinguistic strategies" (like convergence or divergence), (4) "behavior and tactics" (such as topic and accent), and (5) "labeling and attributions".

Assessment and plans for the future

This aspect focuses on how communicators interpret the behaviors of their conversation partners and how it influences future interactions between the two groups. Conversations with positive ratings are likely to result in more communication between the interlocutors and other individuals in their respective groups.

Communication Accommodation Theory in Action

According to Giles, Coupland, and Coupland in 1991, they believed that a "more qualitative perspective" was necessary to understand behaviors in different contexts. They called this perspective "the applied perspective" and emphasized the importance of accommodation theory in everyday activities, not just as a theoretical concept. Their goal was to show how the concepts and relationships in accommodation theory could address practical concerns. They concluded that these concerns were diverse in nature.

One of the pragmatic concerns pertained to understanding the relational issues in the medical and clinical fields. This included factors like alternatives, development, difficulties, and outcomes, influencing patients' satisfaction with their medical interactions and adherence to healthcare regimens. Another concern related to the choices available in legal matters. The behavior of judges, plaintiffs, and defendants towards the situation and the jury could influence the jury's decision regarding the defendant and ultimately determine the case's outcome.

The theory of communication accommodation was found to be applicable in various contexts. For instance, it was observed that in radio broadcasting, the connection between the audience and the broadcaster played a vital role in determining the show's ratings and its continuation. Similarly, in the realm of employment, accommodation theory affected job satisfaction and productivity by either aligning or differing from coworkers and the work environment. Moreover, accommodation theory also proved useful in the process of learning a second language.

When a student's education and proficiency in a language was affected by accommodative measures, it was observed. Giles, Coupland, and Coupland (1991) also discussed how accommodation theory influences "language switching" situations, where bilingual individuals have to decide which language to use when in an organizational setting with other bilingual individuals. This decision can be crucial in a business environment as it could unintentionally foster negative reactions between the parties involved.

The way an immigrant accepts and is accepted by their host country is closely connected to accommodation theory. Over-accommodation from the immigrant can inadvertently harm their sense of individuality, while a significant deviation from the host culture can lead the natives of the host country to react negatively due to the immigrant's use of divergence.

According to Giles, Coupland, and Coupland (1991), accommodation theory has practical applications in the lives of individuals with disabilities. This theory can either help them reach their full potential in communication and life or hinder their progress by emphasizing their disability rather than their similarities to others. Although communication accommodation theory is theoretical, it has been proven viable through various practical applications.

Exploring the practical application of Communication Accommodation Theory within diverse cultural groups.

Intergenerational communications

Scientists studying communication accommodation theory focus on intergenerational conversations between the elderly and the young. They actively utilize this theory to analyze communication situations between different age groups. As the aging population continues to grow, it is imperative to address the communication challenges faced by older adults and tackle issues such as ageism. Mainstream sociolinguistic studies consider age as a variable that may demonstrate patterns of dialectal variation within speech communities over time.

When using communication accommodation theory to investigate intergenerational communication issues and enhance effectiveness, it is important to consider potential generational differences in beliefs about talk, situational perceptions, interactional goals, and language devices between young and elderly individuals. Previous studies have also developed models like the communication predicament model of aging and the communication enhancement model of aging to highlight the various outcomes resulting from negative and positive attitudes towards getting older.